Quadratic Functions To find the equation of a polynomial from its graph:

AS Level Mathematics Formulae

Proof and Mathematical Communication The solutions of 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 (𝑎 ≠ 0) are given 1. Use the shape and position of the 𝑥-
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 intercepts to write down the factors of the
by the quadratic formula: 𝑥 = .
𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄 means P implies Q or ‘if P is true then Q is 2𝑎 polynomial.
true’ or ‘P is sufficient for Q’. The graph 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 crosses the y-axis at the 2. Use any other point to find the constant
point (0, 𝑐) and the x-axis at the root(s) of the factor.
𝑃 ⇐ 𝑄 means P is implied by Q or ‘if Q is true then P
is true’ or ‘P is necessary for Q’. equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.
Using Graphs
𝑃 ⟺ 𝑄 means that P is equivalent to Q or ‘Q is true To solve quadratic inequalities always sketch the
Transformation Transformation of graph
if and only if P is true’. graph. of 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)
The discriminant of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒄 Translation 𝑐 units up.
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is called the union of A and B.
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is Δ = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐. 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒅) Translation 𝑑 units to the left.
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is called the intersection of A and B. 𝒚 = 𝒑𝒇(𝒙) Vertical stretch, scale factor 𝑝
For the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 if Δ < relative to the 𝑥-axis.
𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] means 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏. 0 the equation has no real roots, if Δ = 0 the 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒒𝒙) Horizontal stretch, scale factor
equation has one repeated root and if Δ > 0 the 1/𝑞 relative to the 𝑦-axis.
𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) means 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏.
equation has two real roots. 𝒚 = −𝒇(𝒙) Reflection in the 𝑥-axis.
𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏) means 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏. 𝒚 = 𝒇(−𝒙) Reflection in the 𝑦-axis.
For a quadratic function with Δ < 0, if 𝑎 > 0 then
𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏] means 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏. 𝑦 > 0 for all 𝑥 and if 𝑎 < 0 then 𝑦 < 0 for all 𝑥.
The general process for illustrating inequalities is:
Indices and Surds Polynomials
 Draw the associated equation on the graph,
𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 The factor theorem states that if 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 then (𝑥 − using a dashed line if the curve is not
𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 included
𝑏  Test a convenient point on one side of the
(𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 If 𝑓 (𝑎) = 0 then (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
curve
𝑎0 = 1 The stages of sketching graphs of polynomials are  Shade the side which does not satisfy the
classifying the order of the polynomial and whether it inequality
𝑎1 = 𝑎
is positive or negative to deduce the basic shape. Coordinate Geometry
1
𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
1. Set 𝑥 = 0 to find the 𝑦-intercept. The distance between the points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
𝑚
𝑛 𝑚 𝑛 2. Write in factorised form.
𝑎 = ( √𝑎 )
𝑛 = √𝑎 𝑚 is √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 .
3. Find 𝑥-intercepts.
𝑎𝑛 × 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑛 4. Decide on how the curve meets the 𝑥-axis at The midpoint of (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is
each intercept. 𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
𝑎 𝑛 ( 2
, 2 ).
𝑛 𝑛
𝑎 ÷𝑏 = (𝑏 ) 5. Connect all this information with a smooth
curve.
The gradient of line segment between the points
𝑦 −𝑦
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is 2 1.
𝑥2 −𝑥1
The line with gradient 𝑚 through the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
has equation 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).
Two lines are parallel if they have the same gradient.
If a line has gradient 𝑚, the gradient of any
⊥ −1
perpendicular line is 𝑚 = .
𝑚 the 𝑥-axis.
Two lines with gradients 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are
perpendicular if 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1.
The circle with centre (𝑎, 𝑏) and radius 𝑟 has
equation (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 .
The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius
To solve an equation with the unknown in the power,
take logarithms (to any base) of both sides.
Exponential Models
For all the graphs 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 :
 The 𝑦-intercept is always (0,1) because 𝑎0 =
1.
 The graph of the function lies entirely above
 The 𝑥-axis is an asymptote.
If 𝑎 > 0, then as 𝑥 increases so does 𝑦. This is called
exponential growth.
If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, then as 𝑥 increases, 𝑦 decreases. This
is called exponential decay.
If 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑏 𝑥 then log 𝑦 = log 𝑘 + 𝑥 log 𝑏 and so the
graph of log 𝑦 against 𝑥 is a straight line with
gradient log 𝑏 and 𝑦-intercept log 𝑘.
If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 then log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + 𝑛 log 𝑥 and so the
graph of log 𝑦 against log 𝑥 is a straight line with
gradient 𝑛 and 𝑦-intercept log 𝑎.
Binomial Expansion
𝑛! = 𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1) × ⋯ × 2 × 1 for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and 0! is
defined to be 1.
Binomial coefficients of expressions of the form
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 can be found using Pascal’s triangle or by
using the 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 button on your calculator or by using
𝑛 𝑛!
the formula 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 = ( ) = .
𝑟 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!

at the point of contact. The gradient of 𝑒 𝑥 equals 𝑒 𝑥 .

𝑛
𝐶0 = 1, 𝑛 𝐶1 = 𝑛.
The normal is the line containing the point of contact The gradient of 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 equals 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑥 , i.e. if 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 then The binomial theorem states that for any positive
and the centre of the circle. d𝑦 integer 𝑛, (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶0 𝑎𝑛 𝑏0 + 𝑛 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 +
= 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑥 . 𝑛
d𝑥 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 𝑎0 𝑏𝑛 .
Any exponential function 𝑎 𝑥 can be written in the
If the value of 𝑥 is close to zero, large powers of 𝑥
form 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 .
will be extremely small. You can use this to find
 If 𝑎 > 0, 𝑘 is positive and 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 represents approximations using the binomial theorem.
exponential growth. Trigonometric functions and equations
Logarithms
 If 𝑎 < 1, 𝑘 is negative and 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 represents
𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑐 ⟺ 𝑐 = log 𝑏 𝑎 exponential decay.

log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥 .

𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 The graph of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 passes through the point (0,1)

and has the 𝑦-axis as a vertical asymptote.
log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦
For a function of the form 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑘𝑡 :
𝑥
log 𝑎 (𝑦) = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦 cos 𝜃 is the distance of the point 𝑃 to the right of the
 the initial value (when 𝑡 = 0) is 𝐴 vertical axis (its 𝑥-coordinate).
𝑘 d𝑦
log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑘log 𝑎 𝑥  the rate of growth is d𝑡 = 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝐴𝑒 𝑘𝑡 . sin 𝜃 is the distance of the point 𝑃 above the
log 𝑎 1 = 0 horizontal axis (its 𝑦-coordinate).
This is the graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥. cos 𝑥 ≡ sin(90° − 𝑥) To find the possible values of 𝑥 satisfying cos 𝑥 = 𝑎:

tan 𝑥 ≡ cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥
 use your calculator to find 𝑥1 = cos−1 𝑎
 the second solution is given by 𝑥2 = −𝑥1
This is the graph of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥.  other solutions are found by adding or
subtracting 360° to any solution already
found.

To find the possible values of 𝑥 satisfying tan 𝑥 = 𝑎:

 use your calculator to find 𝑥1 = tan−1 𝑎

 other solutions are found by adding or
The sine function is periodic with period 360°. The subtracting multiples of 180°.
sine function has amplitude 1. To solve an equation such as sin 2𝑥 = 𝑎:
sin 𝑥 ≡ sin(180° − 𝑥)
 make a substitution (such as 𝜃 = 2𝑥)
sin 𝑥 ≡ sin(360° + 𝑥) The tangent function is periodic with period 180°. It  change the interval for 𝑥 into the interval for
is undefined for 𝑥 = 90°, 270°, etc. 𝜃
sin(180° + 𝑥) ≡ sin(−𝑥) ≡ − sin 𝑥
 solve the equation in 𝜃 in the usual way
tan 𝑥 ≡ tan(𝑥 + 180°)
This is the graph of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥.  transform the solutions back into the original
𝟎° 𝟑𝟎° 𝟒𝟓° 𝟔𝟎° 𝟗𝟎° 𝟏𝟐𝟎° 𝟏𝟑𝟓° 𝟏𝟓𝟎° 𝟏𝟖𝟎° variable.
1 √2 √3 √3 √2 1
sin 0 1 0
2 2
2 2
1
2
1
2 Use the following methods to solve more
√3 √2 √2 √3
cos 1 0 − − − −1
2 2 2 2 2 2 complicated trigonometric equations:
1 not 1
tan 0 1 √3 −√3 −1 − 0
√3 defined √3
 look for disguised quadratics
 take everything over to one side and
sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 ≡ 1 factorise
 use trigonometric identities.
To find the possible values of 𝑥 satisfying sin 𝑥 = 𝑎:
Triangle geometry
 use your calculator to find 𝑥1 = sin−1 𝑎
The cosine function is periodic with period 360°. The  the second solution is given by The sine rule is:
𝑎
=
𝑏
=
𝑐
.
cosine function has amplitude 1. sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
𝑥2 = 180° − 𝑥1
cos 𝑥 ≡ cos(−𝑥)  other solutions are found by adding or When using the sine rule to find an angle there may
subtracting 360° to any solution already be two possible solutions-one acute and one obtuse.
cos 𝑥 ≡ cos(𝑥 + 360°) found.
The cosine rule is: 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴 or
cos(180° − 𝑥) ≡ cos(180° + 𝑥) ≡ − cos 𝑥 𝑏2 +𝑐 2 −𝑎2
cos 𝐴 = 2𝑏𝑐
.
sin 𝑥 ≡ cos(90° − 𝑥)
 1 When the tangent is horizontal the gradient is zero. Given a stationary point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) of a function 𝑦 =
The area of a triangle is given by: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶.
A point on the graph where this happens is called a 𝑓(𝑥):
Vectors stationary point.
d2 𝑦
𝑥  if d𝑥 2 < 0 at 𝑥0 then (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is a local
1 0 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑦) = 𝑥i + 𝑦j where i = ( ) and j = ( ). 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim maximum
0 1 ℎ→0 ℎ
d2 𝑦
The magnitude (modulus) of a vector is its length. If d𝑦  if > 0 at 𝑥0 then (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is a local
If 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 then: d𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 . d𝑥 2
𝑝 minimum
𝒂 = (𝑞 ) then |𝒂| = √𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 .
If 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑘 is a constant, then 𝑦 = ′ d2 𝑦
 if d𝑥 2 = 0 at 𝑥0 then no conclusion can be
The direction of a vector is the angle it makes with 𝑘𝑓′(𝑥).
drawn.
the positive horizontal direction measured anti-wise. If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥), then 𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ ′ (𝑥)
+ 𝑔′(𝑥).
It can be found from the right-angled triangle formed Solving optimisation problems usually amounts to
d𝑦 d𝑦
by the vector and its components. If is positive the function is increasing – as 𝑥 gets solving an equation of the form = 0 to find a
d𝑥 d𝑥

A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is one. larger, so does 𝑦. stationary point which is either a local maximum or a
local minimum. In some examples a function may
d𝑦
If vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 are parallel then you can write 𝒃 = If d𝑥 is negative the function is decreasing – as 𝑥 gets appear to depend upon two variables but these two
𝑡𝒂 for some scalar 𝑡. larger, 𝑦 gets smaller. variables will be related to each other by a constraint
that will allow one of the variables to be eliminated.
If points 𝐴 and 𝐵 have position vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 then Applications of Differentiation
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝒃 − 𝒂. Integration
For the point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with 𝑥 = 𝑎:
If points 𝐴 and 𝐵 have position vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 then The fundamental theorem of calculus: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)d𝑥 =
 the gradient of the tangent is 𝑓′(𝑎) d
the distance between them, 𝐴𝐵, is equal to the 1 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐 means that 𝑓(𝑥) = d𝑥 𝐹(𝑥). This just
magnitude of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵: 𝐴𝐵 = |𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝒃 − 𝒂|.  the gradient of the normal is − ′ (𝑎)
𝑓 means that integration is the reverse of
 the coordinates of the point are 𝑥1 = 𝑎, 𝑦1 = differentiation.
The midpoint of the line segment connecting points
𝑓(𝑎)
with position vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 has position vector 1
1 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 d𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝑐 for any 𝑛 ≠ −1.
(𝒂 + 𝒃). To find the equation of the tangent or the normal, 𝑛+1
2
use 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) with the appropriate ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)d𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)d𝑥 where 𝑘 is a constant.
Differentiation gradient.
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)d𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)d𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)d𝑥.
The gradient of a curve at a point 𝑃 is equal to the To find local maximum or minimum points, solve the
gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point 𝑃. d𝑦 d𝑦
equation = 0. To find the equation for 𝑦 given the gradient and
d𝑥 d𝑥
When the graph is increasing the gradient is positive. one point (𝑝, 𝑞) on the curve:
d𝑦
When the graph is decreasing the gradient is  integrate to get an equation for 𝑦 in terms
d𝑥
negative. of 𝑥, remembering +𝑐
 find the value of 𝑐 by substituting 𝑥 = 𝑝 and
𝑦 = 𝑞 into the equation
  rewrite the equation for 𝑦, using the value of
𝑐 that has been found.
The area between the curve, the 𝑥-axis and lines 𝑥 =
𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)d𝑥 provided that the part of the curve
between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏
lies entirely above the 𝑥-axis.
If the curve goes below the 𝑥-axis, then the integral
of the part below the
𝑥-axis will be negative. To find the total area you
need to find the areas of the parts below and above
the 𝑥-axis separately.
Working with Data
Histograms are a useful visual summary of data,
giving an immediate impression of centre and
spread.
In a histogram the area represents the frequency.
The vertical axis represents frequency density.
frequency
Frequency density =
class width
Cumulative frequency diagrams are useful for finding
the median and the interquartile range and also
facilitate the construction of box and whisker
diagrams, another good visual summary of data.
A stem-and-leaf diagram shows the distribution of
the data while displaying all values.
The centre of the data can be measured using the
mean, median or mode.
∑𝑥
𝑥̅ = 𝑛 a suitable calculator.
The spread around the centre can be measured using Events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are independent if knowing the
the range, interquartile range or standard deviation. outcome of 𝐴 does not affect the probability of 𝐵.
For independent events: ℙ(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = ℙ(𝐴) × ℙ(𝐵).
∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 ∑𝑥 2
Standard deviation: 𝜎 = √ or 𝜎 = √ − 𝑥̅ 2 .
𝑛 𝑛 The complement of an event 𝐴 is the event “not 𝐴”
or 𝐴′: ℙ(𝐴) + ℙ(𝐴′ ) = 1. The probability of a
The square of the standard deviation is called the
complement is sometimes easier to find.
variance.
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are independent the 𝐴′ and 𝐵′ are also
𝜎 2 = ̅̅̅
𝑥 2 − 𝑥̅ 2 , i.e. the variance is the mean of the
independent, as are 𝐴 and 𝐵′ and 𝐵 and 𝐴′.
squares minus the square of the mean.
A probability distribution is a list of all possible
If the data has been grouped you can estimate the
outcomes and their probabilities.
mean and the standard deviation by assuming that
every data value is at the centre of each class. The total of all the probabilities of a probability
distribution must always equal 1.
∑𝑓𝑥
𝑥̅ = ∑𝑓
where 𝑓 is the frequency of each 𝑥 value
Cumulative probability is the probability of obtaining
and 𝑛 = ∑𝑓 is the total frequency.
up to and including a given outcome: 𝐹(𝑥) = ℙ(𝑋 ≤
∑𝑓𝑥 2 𝑥).
𝜎2 = − 𝑥̅ 2
𝑛
The binomial distribution models the number of
The correlation coefficient is a value between -1 and
successful outcomes from repeated trials, provided
1 which measure the strength of linear relationship
the following conditions are satisfied:
between two variables.
 the number of trials is fixed
The regression line can be drawn on a scatter
 each outcome can be classified as either
diagram for a set of bivariate data. It should only be
’success’ or ‘failure’
used if there is significant linear correlation and there
 the trials are independent of each other
is not too much extrapolation.
 the probability of success is the same in each
Graphs or calculations can be used to identify outliers trial.
in data, which then may need to be removed.
If 𝑛 is the number of trials, 𝑝 the probability of
Probability success and 𝑋 denotes the number of successes, you
can write 𝑋~𝐵𝑖𝑛(𝑛, 𝑝).
Events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive if it is
impossible for both of them to happen at the same If 𝑋~𝐵𝑖𝑛(𝑛, 𝑝) then: ℙ(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 𝑛 𝐶𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑥
time: ℙ(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0. for 𝑥 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛. These probabilities as well as
related cumulative probabilities can also be found on
If events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive, their
probabilities can be added to find the probability of 𝐴
or 𝐵: ℙ(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = ℙ(𝐴) + ℙ(𝐵).
Statistical Hypothesis Testing
Simple random sampling is a procedure where every
possible sample (of a given size) has an equal chance
of being selected.
Opportunity sampling involves choosing respondents
based upon their availability and convenience.
Systematic sampling means taking participants at
regular intervals from a list of the population, with
the starting point chosen at random.
Stratified sampling is splitting the population into
groups based on factors relevant to the research,
then random sampling from each group in proportion
to the size of that group.
Quota sampling is splitting the population into
groups based on factors relevant to the research,
then opportunity sampling from each group until a
required number of participants are found.
Cluster sampling is splitting the population into
clusters based on convenience, then randomly
choosing some clusters to study further.
A hypothesis test is a procedure for answering a
question of the following type:
 does a sample provide significant evidence
that a population parameter
(mean/spread/proportion) has changed from
a previously known or assumed value?
The null hypothesis, denoted 𝐻0 , specifies the
previous or assumed population proportion.
The alternative hypothesis, denoted 𝐻1 , specifies
how you think the proportion may have changed.
If you assume that 𝐻0 is correct, then the probability
of the observed, or more extreme, sample value is
called the 𝑝-value.
If the 𝑝-value is smaller than the significance level,
you have sufficient evidence against 𝐻0 and you can
reject it in favour of 𝐻1 . Otherwise, the sample does
not provide sufficient evidence against 𝐻0 and you
should not reject it.
A hypothesis test for a population proportion
includes the following steps:
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses,
defining any parameters.
2. Decide on a significance level.
3. State the distribution of the test statistic,
assuming the null hypothesis is true.
4. Using this distribution calculate the
probability of observing the tests statistic, or
more extreme. This is the 𝑝-value.
5. Compare the 𝑝-value to the significance
level. If the 𝑝-value is smaller than the
significance level, there is sufficient evidence
to reject the null hypothesis.
6. Interpret the conclusion in context,
remembering to make it clear that the
conclusion is not a statement of certainty,
but of significance.
In a one-tail test the alternative hypothesis is of the
form 𝑝 < 𝛼 or 𝑝 > 𝛼. You need to compare the 𝑝-
value to the significance level.
In a two-tail test the alternative hypothesis is of the
form 𝑝 ≠ 𝛼. You need to compare the 𝑝-value to
half the significance level.
The critical region (or rejection region) for a test is
the set of values of the test statistic that provide
sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis. For
a two-tail test the critical region is made up of two
parts.
The value at the edge of the critical region is called
the critical value.
If the value of the tests statistic is inside the critical
region you have sufficient evidence to reject 𝐻0 .
The acceptance region is the set of values of the test
statistic that do not provide sufficient evidence to
reject the null hypothesis.
The probability of rejecting a correct null hypothesis
is the same as the probability of the test statistic
being in the critical region. It is always smaller than
(or equal to) the significance level of the test.
Introduction to Kinematics
The displacement , velocity and acceleration of a
particle moving in a straight line are vectors: they can
have a positive or a negative value.
Distance (from a certain point) is the magnitude of
the displacement (from that point). This is not
necessarily the same as the distance travelled.
The instantaneous velocity and instantaneous
acceleration can be found by differentiating the
d𝑥 d𝑣
displacement equation: 𝑣 = d𝑡
, 𝑎= d𝑡
.
Integrating the velocity equation gives the
displacement equation; integrating the acceleration
equation gives the velocity equation: 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑣 d𝑡, 𝑣 =
∫ 𝑎 d𝑡. The constant of integration can be found
from the initial displacement or velocity.
The change of displacement between time 𝑡1 and 𝑡2
𝑡
can be found using the definite integral 𝑥 = ∫𝑡 2 𝑣 d𝑡.
1
If the particle doesn’t change direction then this
integral gives the total distance travelled. If the
particle does change direction then use 𝑥 =
𝑡 An object is in equilibrium if the resultant force is
∫𝑡 2 |𝑣| d𝑡 where |𝑣| is the absolute value of 𝑣.
1 zero.
On a velocity-time graph:
 the acceleration is the gradient
 the distance travelled equals the area
between the graph and the 𝑡-axis
 the change in displacement can be found by
subtracting the area below the 𝑡-axis from
the area above.
The average velocity equals change of displacement
divided by time. The average speed equals total
distance travelled divided by time.
Motion with Constant Acceleration
When an object is moving with constant acceleration
you can use the following equations:
 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1 Newton’s first law states that an object remains at
 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
1 tension is the same throughout the string.
 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2
2

1
𝑠 = 2 (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡
 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
where 𝑎 is the acceleration, 𝑢 is the initial velocity, 𝑣
is the velocity at time 𝑡 and 𝑠 is the displacement
from the starting position. In these equations all the
quantities (usually with the exception of 𝑡) can either
be positive or negative.
The object is instantaneously at rest, and may be
changing direction, when 𝑣 = 0.
The object returns to the starting point when 𝑠 = 0.
A special case of motion with constant acceleration is of an object is fixed but its weight depends upon its
vertical motion under gravity. The acceleration is location in the universe.
directed downwards and has magnitude 𝑔 =
9.8ms−2 .
 The object reaches maximum height when
When working with force vectors, you can consider
𝑣 = 0.
horizontal and vertical components separately.
 For projection from ground level, time going
up equals time going down, and the object Objects in Contact
hits the ground with the same speed with
Newton’s third law states that if object 𝐴 exerts a
which it was projected.
force on object 𝐵, then object 𝐵 exerts a force on
 The constant acceleration model requires
object 𝐴, with the same magnitude but opposite
that air resistance can be ignored (true of the
direction.
object is modelled as a particle) and that 𝑔 is
constant (true for small heights). Whenever an object is in contact with a surface, the
surface exerts a normal reaction force. This force is
Force and Motion
perpendicular to the surface and is directed away
A force can start or stop the motion of an object, from it.
change the magnitude or the direction of its velocity.
Newton’s third law implies that when two objects are
Force is a vector and its magnitude is measured in
in contact, each object exerts a normal reaction force
newtons (1N = 1kgms −2).
on the other one.
rest or continues to move with a constant velocity
If two objects are connected by taut string then the
unless a force acts on it.
 The tension at the point where the string is
Newton’s second law states that the force required
attached to an object is directed away from
to produce a given acceleration is proportional to the
the object.
acceleration and the mass of the object: 𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂.
 If the string is inextensible, the two objects
The acceleration is in the same direction as the force.
have the same acceleration.
If several forces are acting on an object, their  If the string passes over a light smooth
combined effect is represented by the resultant pulley, or a fixed smooth peg, the tension is
force. This force is found by adding the vectors the same on either side of the pulley/peg.
corresponding to the original forces.
If the string is replaced by a light rod, then the force
The weight of an object is 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔, where 𝑚 is the can be a thrust as well as a tension. The thrust force
object’s mass and 𝑔 is the gravitational acceleration is directed towards the object.
(on the surface of the Earth 𝑔 ≈ 9.8ms −2 ). The mass
Two connected objects move with the same
acceleration and same speed. To find the
acceleration you can treat them as a single object,
but to find the normal reaction or tension force you
need to consider each object separately.

The centre of mass is the point at which the object’s

weight acts.

 For a uniform rod, this is at the midpoint.

 For a uniform rectangular or other regular
lamina, this is at the point of symmetry.
 For a non-uniform rod, you can find its
position by considering moments.

To find the resultant moment about a point, find the

sum of the clockwise and anticlockwise moments
separately. The resultant moment will be the
difference between the two sums (in the direction of
the larger).

If an object is in equilibrium, there is zero resultant

force and zero resultant moment about any point.