Math 140

Calculus and Analytic Geometry 1

Chapter 3
Derivatives
3.1 Tangents and the Derivative at a Point
Finding a Tangent to the Graph of a Function
Definitions The slope of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point
𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) is the number
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑥0 ))
𝑚 = lim (Provided the limit exists)
ℎ→0 ℎ
The tangent line to the curve at 𝑃 is the line through 𝑃 with this slope.
Example 1
1
(a) Find the slope of the curve 𝑦 = at any point 𝑥 = 𝑎 ≠ 0.
𝑥
what is the slope at 𝑥 = −1?
1
(b) Where does the slope equal − ?
4
(c) What happens to the tangent to the curve at the point
(𝑎, 1/𝑎) as 𝑎 changes?
Solution:
Rates of Change: Derivative at a Point
Definition: The derivative of a function 𝑓 at a point 𝑥0 , denoted 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )
is
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Provided this limit exists.
Example 2: In Example 1 and 2 in Section 2.1, we studied the speed of a
rock falling freely from rest near the surface of the earth. What was the
rock’s exact speed at the instant 𝑡 = 1?
Solution:
Example 3: Find the slope of the following function’s graph at the given
point. Then find an equation for the line tangent to the curve.
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 (2, 5) (b) 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1, (8,3).
Solution:

Summary
3.2 The Derivative as a Function
Definition: The derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to the
variable 𝑥 is the function 𝑓 ′ whose value at 𝑥 is
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ,
ℎ→0 ℎ
Provided the limit exists.
Calculating Derivatives from the Definition
The process of calculating a derivative is called differentiation. To
emphasize the idea that differentiation is an operation performed on a
𝑑
function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we use the notation 𝑓(𝑥) as another way to
𝑑𝑥
′
denote the derivative 𝑓 (𝑥).
𝑥
Example 1: Differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥−1

Solution:
Example 2:
(a) Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 for 𝑥 > 0.
(b) Find the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = √𝑥 at 𝑥 = 4.
Solution:
Graphing the Derivative
First of all estimate the slopes on the graph of 𝑓. Then plot the points
(𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)) in the 𝑥𝑦-plane and connect them with a smooth curve,
which represents 𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
Example 3: Graph the derivative of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in the
following figure (a).
Solution: We sketch the tangent to the graph of 𝑓 at frequent intervals
and use their slopes to estimate the values of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) at these points. We
plot the corresponding (𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)) pairs and connect them with a
smooth curve as sketched in Figure (b) given above.
Differentiable on an Interval; One-Sided Derivatives
A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable on an open interval (finite or
infinite) if it has a derivative at each point of the interval. It is
differentiable on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if it is differentiable on the
interior (𝑎, 𝑏) and if the limits
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
lim+ 𝐑𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 − 𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐚𝐭 𝑎
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑏 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
lim− 𝐋𝐞𝐟𝐭 − 𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐚𝐭 𝑏
ℎ→0 ℎ
exists at the endpoints see the figure given below.
Example 4: Show that the function 𝑦 = |𝑥| is differentiable on (−∞, 0)
and (0, ∞) but has no derivative at 𝑥 = 0.
Solution:

Example 5: In Example 2 we found that for 𝑥 > 0,

𝑑 1
√𝑥= ,
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥
We can apply the definition to examine if the derivative exists at 𝑥 = 0:

√0 + ℎ − √0 1
lim+ = lim+ = ∞.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
√ℎ
Since the right-hand limit is not finite, there is no derivative at 𝑥 = 0.
Where Does a Function Not Have a Derivative at a Point?

Another case in which the derivative may fail to exist occurs when the
1
function’s slope is oscillating rapidly near 𝑃, as in the case of 𝑦 = sin( )
𝑥
near the origin, where it is discontinuous (See the following figure).
Theorem 1 (Differentiability Implies Continuity) If 𝑓 has a derivative at
𝑥 = 𝑐, then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
Proof:
3.3 Differentiation Rules
Power, Multiple, Sum, and Differences
Derivative of a Constant Function
If 𝑓 has the constant value 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, then
𝑑𝑓 𝑑(𝑐)
= = 0.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Proof:

Derivative of a positive Integer Power

If 𝑛 is a positive integer, then
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
𝑑𝑥
Proof:
Power Rule (General Version)
If 𝑛 is any real number, then
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 ,
𝑑𝑥
for all 𝑥 where the powers 𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑥 𝑛−1 are defined.
Example 1: Differentiate the following powers of 𝑥.
1
(a) 𝑥 3 (b) 𝑥 2/3 (c) 𝑥 √2 (d) (e) 𝑥 −4/3 (f) √𝑥 2+𝜋
𝑥4

Solution:
Derivative Constant Multiple Rule
If 𝑢 is a differentiable function of 𝑥, and 𝑐 is a constant, then
𝑑(𝑐𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
=𝑐 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Proof:

Example 2:
(a) The derivative formula
𝑑(3𝑥 2 )
= 3 ⋅ 2𝑥 = 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥
says that if we rescale the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 by
multiplying each 𝑦-coordinate by 3, then we multiply
the slope at each point by 3 (see the Figure given
below).
(b) Negative of a function
The derivative of the negative of a differentiable
function 𝑢 is the negative of the function’s derivative.
The constant multiple rule with 𝑐 = −1 gives
𝑑(−𝑢) 𝑑(−1 ⋅ 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= = −1 ⋅ =− .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Derivative Sum Rule
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are differentiable functions of 𝑥, then their sum 𝑢 +
𝑣 is a differentiable at every point where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are both
differentiable. At such points,
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑥
(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥.
Proof:

Combining the Sum Rule with the Constant Multiple Rule gives
the Difference Rule, which says that the derivative of a
difference of differentiable functions is the difference of their
derivatives:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
(𝑢 − 𝑣) = [𝑢 + (−1)𝑣] = + (−1) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The Sum Rule also extends to finite sums of more than two
functions. If 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ , 𝑢𝑛 are differentiable functions at 𝑥 then
so is 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +𝑢𝑛 , and
𝑑 𝑑𝑢1 𝑑𝑢2 𝑑𝑢𝑛
(𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +𝑢𝑛 ) = + +⋅⋅⋅ + .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 3: Find the derivative of the polynomial
4
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1
3
Solution:

Example 4: Does the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 2 have any

horizontal tangent? If so where?
Solution: The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope
𝑑𝑦
is zero. We have
𝑑𝑥
Derivatives of the Exponential Functions
When we apply the definition of the derivative to 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , we get
𝑑(𝑎 𝑥 ) 𝑎 𝑥+ℎ − 𝑎 𝑥
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑎𝑥 ⋅𝑎ℎ −𝑎𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑎ℎ −1
= lim 𝑎 𝑥 ⋅ ℎ
ℎ→0
𝑎ℎ −1
= ax ⋅ lim ( )
ℎ→0 ℎ

= 𝑎 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑎
When 𝑎 = 𝑒 ≈ 2.718281828, we obtain the natural exponential
𝑒 ℎ −1
function 𝑒 𝑥 . Using the fact that lim = 1, we have
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑑(𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑒ℎ − 1
= lim ( ) ⋅ 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
= 1 ⋅ 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥.
Example 5: Find an equation for a line that is tangent to the graph of
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 and goes through the origin.
Solution:
Product Rule
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are differentiable at 𝑥, then so is their product 𝑢𝑣, and
𝑑(𝑢𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
=𝑢 +𝑣 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Proof:

1
Example 6: Find the derivative of (a) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑒 𝑥 ), (b) 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 ,
𝑥

(c) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 3 + 3).

Solution:
Quotient Rule
If u and v are differentiable functions at x and if 𝑣(𝑥) ≠ 0, then the
𝑢
quotient is differentiable at x, and
𝑣

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 −𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .
( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2
In function notation,
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥)
Proof:
 𝑡 2 −1
Example 7: Find the derivative of (a) 𝑦 = , (b) 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 .
𝑡 3 +1

Solution:

Example 8: Find the derivative of

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥).
𝑦=
𝑥4
Solution:
Second and Higher-Order Derivatives
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a differentiable function, then its derivatives 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is also
a function. If 𝑓 ′ is also differentiable, then we can differentiate 𝑓 ′ to
get to get a new function of 𝑥 denoted by 𝑓 ′′ . So 𝑓 ′′ = (𝑓 ′ )′. The
function 𝑓 ′′ is called the second derivative of 𝑓 because it is the
derivative of the first derivative. It can be written in several ways:
d2 y d dy dy ′
f ′′ (x) = = ( )= = y ′′ = D2 (f(x)) = D2x f(x)
dx dx dx dx
dy′′ d3 y
If y ′′ is differentiable, its derivative, y ′′′ = = , is the third
dx dx3
derivative of y with respect to x. Continuing in this way, we get

(n)
dy n−1 dn y
y = = n = Dn y
dx dx
The nth derivative of y with respect to x for any positive integer n.
Example 9: Find the first four derivatives of y = x 3 − 5x + 4.
Solution:
3.4 The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Instantaneous Rates of Change
Definition: The instantaneous rate of change of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥 at
𝑥0 is the derivative
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Provided the limit exists.
Example 1: The area 𝐴 of a circle is related to its diameter by the
equation
𝜋
𝐴 = 𝐷2
4
How fast does the area change with respect to the diameter when
diameter is 10 m?
Solution:
Motion Along a Line: Displacement, Velocity, Speed,
Acceleration, and Jerk.
The position s of an object moving along a coordinate line, usually
horizontal or vertical, is a function of time t:
s = f(t).
The displacement of the object over the time interval from 𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 + Δ𝑡
is Δ𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑡) and the average velocity of the object over
that time interval is
displacement Δ𝑠 𝑓(𝑡 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = = =
travel time Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
Definition: Velocity (Instantaneous velocity) is the derivative of
position with respect to time. If a body’s position at time 𝑡 is 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡),
then the body’s velocity at time 𝑡 is
𝑑𝑠 𝑓(𝑡 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = = lim .
𝑑𝑡 Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡
Definition: Speed is the absolute value of velocity.
𝑑𝑠
Speed = |𝑣(𝑡)| = | |
𝑑𝑡
Definition: Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to
time. If a body’s position at time 𝑡 is 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡), then the body’s
acceleration at time 𝑡 is
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠
𝑎(𝑡) = = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Jerk is the derivative of acceleration with respect to time:
𝑑𝑎 𝑑3 𝑠
𝑗(𝑡) = = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3
Example 2: A ball bearing falling from rest at time 𝑡 = 0 sec.
(a) How many meters does the ball fall in the first 3 sec?
(b) What is its velocity, speed, and acceleration when 𝑡 = 3?
Solution:

Example 3: A dynamite blast blows a heavy rock straight up with a

launch velocity of 160 ft/sec (about 109 mph). It reaches a height of
𝑠 = 160𝑡 − 16𝑡 2 ft after 𝑡 sec.
(a) How high does the rock go?
(b) What are the velocity and speed of the rock when it is 256 ft
above the ground on the way up? On the way down?
(c) What is the acceleration of the rock at any time 𝑡 during its flight?
(d) When does the rock hit the ground again?
Derivatives in Economics
In manufacturing operation, the cost of production 𝑐(𝑥) is a function of
𝑥, the number of units produced. The marginal cost of production is
𝑑𝑐
the rate of change of cost with respect to level of production, so it is .
𝑑𝑥

The average cost of producing h additional units is

𝑐(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑐(𝑥)
ℎ
The limit of this ratio as ℎ → 0 is the marginal cost of producing more
units when the current weekly production is 𝑥 units:
𝑑𝑐 𝑐(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑐(𝑥)
= lim = marginal cost of production.
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
Example 4: Suppose that it costs
𝑐(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 15𝑥
dollars to produce 𝑥 radiators when 8 to 30 radiators are produced and
that
𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥
gives the dollar revenue from selling 𝑥 radiators. Your shop currently
produces 10 radiators a day. About how much extra will it cost to
produce one more radiator a day, and what is your estimated increase
in revenue for selling 11 radiators a day?
Solution:
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Derivative of the Sine Functions
Calculate the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, for 𝑥 measured in radians. We
will use the angle sum identity for the sine function given below
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + ℎ) = sin 𝑥 cos ℎ + cos 𝑥 sin ℎ.
If 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, then
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) sin(𝑥 + ℎ) − sin 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
(sin 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 ℎ+cos 𝑥 sin ℎ)−sin 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin 𝑥 (cos ℎ−1)+cos 𝑥 sin ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos ℎ−1 sin ℎ
= lim (sin 𝑥 ) + lim (cos 𝑥 ⋅ )
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
cos ℎ−1 sin ℎ
= sin 𝑥 ⋅ lim + cos 𝑥 ⋅ lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

= sin 𝑥 ⋅ 0 + cos 𝑥 ⋅ 1 = cos 𝑥

Hence, the derivative of the sine function is the cosine function:
𝑑(sin 𝑥)
= cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 𝑑𝑦
Example 1: Find in the following.
𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − sin 𝑥 (b) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 (𝑐) 𝑦 = 𝑥

Solution:

Derivative of the Cosine Function

Using the angle sum identity for cosine function,
𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 + ℎ) = cos 𝑥 cos ℎ − sin 𝑥 sin ℎ,
We can compute the limit of the difference quotient:
𝑑(cos 𝑥) cos(𝑥 + ℎ) − cos 𝑥
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
(cos 𝑥 cos ℎ−sin 𝑥 sin ℎ)−cos 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝑥 (cos ℎ−1)−sin 𝑥 sin ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
 cos ℎ−1 sin ℎ
= lim cos 𝑥 − lim sin 𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
cos ℎ−1 sin ℎ
= cos 𝑥 lim − sin 𝑥 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

= cos 𝑥 ⋅ 0 − sin 𝑥 ⋅ 1 = − sin 𝑥

Hence, the derivative of the cosine function is the negative of the sine
function i.e.
𝑑(cos 𝑥)
= − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Example 2: Find in the following cases
𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
(a) 𝑦 = 5𝑒 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 (b) 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 (𝑐) 𝑦 = 1−sin 𝑥

Solution:
Example 3: A weight hanging from a spring is stretched down 5 units
beyond its rest position and released at time 𝑡 = 0 to bob up and
down. Its position at any later time 𝑡 is
𝑠 = 5 cos 𝑡.
What are its velocity and acceleration at time 𝑡?
Solution:
Example 4: Find the jerk associated with the simple harmonic motion in
Example 3.
Solution:

Derivatives of the Other Basic Trigonometric Function

Because sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 are differentiable function of 𝑥, the related
functions
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 1 1
tan 𝑥 = , cot 𝑥 = , sec 𝑥 = , and csc 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
are differentiable at every value of 𝑥 at which they are defined. Their
derivatives, calculated from the Quotient Rule, are given below.
𝑑(tan 𝑥) 𝑑 (cot 𝑥)
= sec 2 𝑥 , = − csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(sec 𝑥) 𝑑(csc 𝑥)
= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥, = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(tan 𝑥)
Example 5: Find .
𝑑𝑥

Solution:
3.8 The Chain Rule
Derivative of a Composite Function
3 1 1
The function 𝑦 = 𝑥 = (3𝑥) is the composite of the function 𝑦 = 𝑢
2 2 2
and 𝑢 = 3𝑥. We have
𝑑𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑢
= , = . 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =3
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑢 2 𝑑𝑥
3 1
Since = ⋅ 3, we see in this case
2 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ⋅ .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Example 1: The function 𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 + 1)2 is the composite of
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢2 and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 1.
Calculating derivative, we see that
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
⋅ = 2𝑢 ⋅ 6𝑥 = 2(3𝑥 2 + 1) ⋅ 6𝑥 = 36𝑥 3 + 12𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Whereas calculating the derivative from the expanded formula
(3𝑥 2 + 1)2 = 9𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 2 + 1
gives the same result
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (9𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 2 + 1) = 36𝑥 3 + 12𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The derivative of the composite function 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) at 𝑥 is the derivative
of 𝑓 at 𝑔(𝑥) times the derivative of 𝑔 at 𝑥. This is known as the Chain
Rule (see the figure given below).
Theorem 2: (The Chain Rule)
If 𝑓(𝑢) is differentiable at the point 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) is differentiable
at 𝑥, then the composite function (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is
differentiable at 𝑥, and
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔′ (𝑥)
In Leibniz’s notation, if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥), then
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ⋅
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
where is evaluated at 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑑𝑢

Proof:
Example 2: An object moves along the x-axes so that its position at any
time 𝑡 ≥ 0 is given by 𝑠(𝑡) = cos(𝑡 2 + 1). Find the velocity of the
object as a function of 𝑡.
Solution:
“Outside-Inside” Rule
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), then = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔′ (𝑥). In words, differentiate
𝑑𝑥
“outside” function 𝑓 and evaluate it at the “inside” function 𝑔(𝑥) left
alone; then multiply by the derivative of the “inside” function.
Example 3: Differentiate sin(𝑥 2 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) with respect to 𝑥.
Solution:

Example 4: Differentiate 𝑦 = 𝑒 cos 𝑥 .

Solution:
Repeated Use of the Chain Rule
Example 5: Find the derivative of 𝑔(𝑡) = tan(5 − sin 2𝑡).
Solution:

The Chain Rule with Powers of a Function

We can use the Chain Rule to extend this to the Power Chain Rule:
𝑑(𝑢𝑛 ) 𝑑(𝑢𝑛 ) 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= ⋅ = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 ⋅ .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 6: Apply Power Chain Rule to find the following derivatives.
𝑑 𝑑 1
(𝑎) (5𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4 )7 (𝑏) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 − 2
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑐 ) (sin5 𝑥) (𝑑) (𝑒 √3𝑥+1 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
 𝑑 𝑥
Example 7: Show that
𝑑𝑥
(|𝑥|) = |𝑥| , 𝑥 ≠ 0.

Solution:

𝑑 𝜋
Example 8: Use the Chain Rule to show that sin(𝑥°) = cos(𝑥°).
𝑑𝑥 180

Solution:
3.8 Implicit Differentiation
Until now most of the functions, we have dealt with so far have been
described by an equation of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) that expresses 𝑦
explicitly in term of the variable 𝑥. Another situation occurs when we
encounter equations like
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 − 9𝑥𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 = 0, 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 25 = 0.

These equations define an implicit relation between the variable 𝑥 and

𝑦. In some cases, we may be able to solve such an equation for 𝑦 as an
explicit function of 𝑥. When we cannot put an equation 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 in
the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to differentiate it in a usual way, we may still be
𝑑𝑦
able to find by implicit differentiation.
𝑑𝑥
 𝑑𝑦
Example 1: Find if 𝑦 2 = 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

Solution:
Example 2: Find the slope of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 at the point
(3, −4).
Solution:

Implicit Differentiation
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to 𝑥, treating
𝑦 as a differentiable function of 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦
2. Collect the terms with on one side of the equation and solve
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
for .
𝑑𝑥
 𝑑𝑦
Example 3: Find if 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + sin (𝑥𝑦).
𝑑𝑥

Solution:

Higher Order Derivatives

𝑑2 𝑦
Example 4: Find if 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑦 2 = 8.
𝑑𝑥 2

Solution:
Lenses, Tangents, and Normal Lines
Example 5: Show that the point (2,4) lies on the curve
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 − 9𝑥𝑦 = 0. Then find the tangent and normal to the curve
there.
Solution:
3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Derivatives of Inverses of Differentiable Functions
1
The inverse of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 is 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 2 and
2
𝑑 𝑑 1 1 𝑑 −1 𝑑
𝑓(𝑥) = ( 𝑥 + 1) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥) = (2𝑥 − 2) = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The derivatives of 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 are reciprocals of one another, so the
slope of one line is the reciprocal of the other line.
The reciprocal relationship between the slope of 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 holds for
other functions as well, but we must be careful to compare slopes at
corresponding points. If the slope of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) and 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) ≠ 0, then the slope of 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) at the point
(𝑓(𝑎), 𝑎) is the reciprocal 1/𝑓 ′ (𝑎).
Theorem 3: (The derivative Rule for Inverses)
If 𝑓 has an interval 𝐼 as domain and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) exists and is never zero on 𝐼,
then 𝑓 −1 is differentiable at every point in its domain (range of 𝑓 ). The
value of (𝑓 −1 )′ at a point 𝑏 in the domain of 𝑓 −1 is the reciprocal of the
value of 𝑓 ′ at the point 𝑎 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑏):
1
(𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑏) = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (1)
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑏))
Or
 𝑑𝑓 −1 1
| = 𝑑𝑓 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑏 𝑑𝑥|𝑥=𝑓−1 (𝑏)

Example 1: Find the derivative of inverse of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =

𝑥 2 , 𝑐 > 0 and verify it through Theorem 3.
Solution:

𝑑𝑓 −1
Example 2: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2, 𝑥 > 0. Find the value of at 𝑥 = 6 =
𝑑𝑥
−1
𝑓(2) without finding a formula for 𝑓 (𝑥).
Solution:
Derivative of the Natural Logarithm Function
As we know that the exponential 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is differentiable
everywhere, we can apply Theorem 3 to find the derivative of its
inverse 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = ln 𝑥:
1
(𝑓 −1 )′(𝑥) =
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥))
1 1 1
= −1 = = .
𝑒 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑒 ln 𝑥 𝑥

Alternate Derivation
Instead of applying Theorem 3 directly, we can find the derivative of
𝑦 = ln 𝑥 using implicit differentiation, as follows:
𝑦 = ln 𝑥 𝑥 > 0
𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑
(𝑒 ) = (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑒𝑦 =1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= 𝑦= .
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥
The Chain Rule extends this formula to positive function 𝑢(𝑥):
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
ln 𝑢 = , 𝑢 > 0 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (2).
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Example 3: Use formula (2) to find the following derivatives
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(a) ln 2𝑥 (𝑏) ln(𝑥 2 + 3) (𝑐) ln |𝑥|
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

If 𝑦 = ln 𝑏𝑥 for any constant 𝑏, provided that 𝑏𝑥 > 0, then

𝑑 1 𝑑 1 1
ln 𝑏𝑥 = ⋅ (𝑏𝑥) = ⋅ 𝑏 = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑥
Example 4: A line with slope 𝑚 passes through the origin and is tangent
to the graph of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥. What is the value of 𝑚.
Solution:
The Derivatives of 𝒂𝒖 and 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐚 𝒖
𝑥)
We start with the equation 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑒 ln(𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎 , 𝑎 > 0,
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 x ln 𝑎
(𝑎 ) = (𝑒 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎 (𝑥 ln 𝑎)
𝑑𝑥

= 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (4)
𝑑
That is, if 𝑎 > 0, then 𝑎 𝑥 is differentiable and 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎. If we
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
take 𝑎 = 𝑒, then 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ 1 = 𝑒 . 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

With the Chain Rule, we get a more general form for the derivative of a
general exponential function 𝑎𝑢 .
If 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑢 is a differentiable function of 𝑥, then 𝑎𝑢 is a
differentiable function of 𝑥 and
𝑑 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑢 ln 𝑎 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (5)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 5: Find the derivatives of the following general exponential

functions.
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 −𝑥 𝑑 sin 𝑥
(𝑎) 3 (𝑏) 3 (𝑐) 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
To find the derivative of log a 𝑢 for arbitrary base 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0, we start
ln 𝑢
with the change-of-base formula log 𝑎 𝑢 = and then take the
ln 𝑎
derivatives:
𝑑 𝑑 ln 𝑥 1 𝑑 1 1 1
log a 𝑥 = ( )= ln 𝑥 = ⋅ = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑎
If u is a differentiable function of 𝑥 and 𝑢 > 0, the Chain Rule gives a
more general formula as follows.
For 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
log a 𝑢 = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (6)
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
Logarithmic Differentiation
Example 6: Find 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 if
1
(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 + 3)2
𝑦= , 𝑥 > 1.
𝑥−1
Solution:
Irrational Exponential and the Power Rule (General Version)
Definition: For any 𝑥 > 0 and for any real number 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛 ln 𝑥 .
General Power Rule for Derivatives
For 𝑥 > 0 and any real number 𝑛,
𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
𝑑𝑥
If 𝑥 ≤ 0, then the formula holds whenever the derivative, 𝑥 𝑛 , and 𝑥 𝑛−1
all exists.
Proof:
Example 7: Differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑥 , 𝑥 > 0.
Solution:

Theorem 4 (The number e as a limit) The number e can be calculated

as the limit
e = lim(1 + x)1/x .
x→0
1
Proof: If f(x) = ln x, then f ′ (x) = , so f ′ (1) = 1. But by the definition
x
of derivative,
f(1 + h) − f(1) f(1 + x) − f(1)
f ′ (1) = lim = lim
h→0 h x→0 x
ln(1+x)−ln 1 1
= lim = lim ln(1 + x) as ln 1 = 0
x→0 x x→0 x
 = lim ln(1 + x)1/x = ln[lim(1 + x)1/x ]
x→0 x→0

Because f ′ (1) = 1, we have

1
ln [lim(1 + x)x ] = 1.
x→0

Therefore, exponentiating both sides we get

lim(1 + x)1/x = e.
x→0
3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Inverse of 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐱, 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝐱, 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝐱, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝐱
The graph of these four basic inverse trigonometric functions are
shown in the following figure. We obtain these graphs by reflecting the
graph of the restricted trigonometric functions through the line y = x.

Definition:
π π
y = tan−1 x is the number in (− , ) for which tan y = x.
2 2

y = cot −1 x is the number in (0, π) for which cot y = x.

π π
y = sec −1 x is the number in [0, ) ∪ ( , π) for which sec y = x.
2 2
π π
y = csc −1 x is the number in [− , 0) ∪ (0, ] for which csc y = x.
2 2

The graph of y = tan−1 x is symmetric about the origin because it is the

branch of the graph x = tan y that is symmetric about the origin.
Algebraically this means that
tan−1 (−x) = − tan−1 x.
The Derivative of 𝐲 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝐮
We know that the function x = sin y is differentiable in the interval
π π
− < y < and that its derivative, the cosine is positive there.
2 2
Theorem 3 in section 3.8 therefore assure us that the inverse function
y = sin−1 x is differentiable throughout the interval −1 < x < 1. We
cannot expect it to be differentiable at x = 1 or x = −1 because the
tangent to the graph are vertical at these points.
We can find the derivative of 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 by applying the Theorem 3
with 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = sin−1 𝑥:
𝑑 1
sin−1 𝑥 = (𝑓 −1 )′(𝑥) = ′ −1
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 (𝑓 (𝑥))
1
= 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓 ′ (𝑢) = cos 𝑢
cos(sin−1 𝑥)
1
= , because cos 𝑢 = √1 − sin2 𝑢
√1 − sin2 (sin−1 𝑥)
1 1
= = .
√1 − (sin(sin−1 𝑥))^2 √1 − 𝑥 2
If 𝑢 is a differentiable function of 𝑥 with |𝑢| < 1, we apply the Chain
Rule to obtain the general formula
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
sin−1 𝑢 = , |𝑢| < 1.
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Example 2: Use the Chain Rule to calculate the derivative
𝑑𝑥
(sin−1 𝑥 2 ).

Solution:
The Derivative of 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒖
We can find the derivative of 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 by applying Theorem 3 with
𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = tan−1 𝑥 because the derivative of tan 𝑥 is
𝜋 𝜋
non-zero for − < 𝑥 < :
2 2

𝑑 1
tan−1 𝑥 = (𝑓 −1 )′(𝑥) = ′ −1 Theorem 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 (𝑓 (𝑥))
1
= , 𝑓 ′ (𝑢) = sec 2 𝑢
sec 2 (tan−1 𝑥)
1
= , sec 2 𝑢 = 1 + tan2 𝑢
1+ tan2 (tan−1 𝑥)
1
= , tan(tan−1 𝑥) = 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
The derivative is defined for all real numbers. If 𝑢 is differentiable
function of 𝑥, then by the Chain Rule:
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(tan−1 𝑢) = .
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Example 3: Find the derivative tan−1 (ln 𝑥).
𝑑𝑥

Solution:
The Derivative of 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒖
𝜋 𝜋
Since the derivative of sec 𝑥 is positive for 0 < 𝑥 < and < 𝑥 < 𝜋,
2 2
Theorem 3 says that 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 is differentiable.
We use the implicit differentiation and the Chain Rule to find the
derivative of 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥, |𝑥| > 0.
𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥
sec 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(sec 𝑦 ) = (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
sec 𝑦 tan 𝑦 =1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 sec 𝑦 tan 𝑦
To express the result in term of 𝑥, we use the relationships

sec 𝑦 = 𝑥 and tan 𝑦 = ±√sec 2 𝑦 − 1 = ±√𝑥 2 − 1

to get
𝑑𝑦 1
=± .
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
The following figure shows that the slope of the graph 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 is
always positive.
Therefore,
1
+ if 𝑥 > 1
𝑑 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
sec −1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1
− if 𝑥 < −1
{ 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
With the absolute value symbol, we can write a single expression that
eliminate the “±” ambiguity:
𝑑 1
sec −1 𝑥 = .
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1
If u is differentiable function of 𝑥 with |𝑢| > 0, we have the formula
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
sec −1 𝑢 = , |𝑢| > 0.
𝑑𝑥 |𝑢|√𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥
Example 4: Using the Chain Rule find the following derivative
𝑑 𝑑 1
(a) sec −1 (5𝑥 2 ) (𝑏) sec −1 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑡

Solution:
Derivatives of the Other Three Inverse Trigonometric Functions
We will use the following identities to get the derivatives of remaining
three inverse trigonometric functions.
Inverse Function-Inverse Cofunction Identities
𝜋
cos−1 𝑥 = − sin−1 𝑥
2
𝜋
cot −1 𝑥 = − tan−1 𝑥
2
𝜋
csc −1 𝑥 = − sec −1 𝑥
2
The derivative of cos−1 𝑥 is calculated as follows:
𝑑 𝑑 𝜋
cos−1 𝑥 = ( − sin−1 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑
= − (sin−1 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
1
=− .
√1 − 𝑥 2

The derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions are summarized

in the following table.
3.10 Related Rates
The problem of finding a rate of change from other known rates of
change is called a related rates problem.
Related Rates Equations
Suppose we are pumping air into a spherical balloon. Both the volume
and radius of the balloon are increasing over time. If 𝑉 is the volume
and 𝑟 is the radius of the balloon at an instant of time, then
4
𝑉= 𝜋 𝑟3.
3
Using the Chain Rule, we differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑡 to
find an equation relating the rates of change of 𝑉 and 𝑟,
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= = 4𝜋𝑟 2 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
So, if we know the radius 𝑟 of the balloon and the rate 𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑡 at which
the volume is increasing at a given instant of time, then we can solve
the for 𝑑𝑟/𝑑𝑡 to find how fast the radius is increasing at that instant.
𝑑𝑉
The related rates equation allows us to calculate 𝑑𝑟/𝑑𝑡 from .
𝑑𝑡

Example 1: Water runs into a conical tank at the rate of 9 ft 3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛. The
tank stands point down and has a height of 10 ft and a base radius of 5
ft. How fast is the water level rising when the water is 6 ft deep?
Solution: The following Figure shows a partially filled conical tank.
The variable in this problem are
V = volume (ft 3 ) of the water in the tank at time t (min)
x= radius (ft) of the surface of the water at time t.
y = depth (ft) of the water in the tank at time t.
We assume that V, x, and y are differentiable function of t. The
constants are the dimensions of the tank. We are asked for dy/dt when
dV ft 3
y = 6 ft and =9 .
dt min
The water forms a cone with volume
1
V= πx 2 y.
3
The equation involves x as well as V and y. Because no information is
given about x and dx/dt at the time in question, we need to eliminate
x. The similar triangles in figure given above give us a way to express x
in term of y:
x 5 y
= or x= .
y 10 2
Therefore, we find
1 y 2 π 3
V= π ( ) y= y .
3 2 12
dV π dy π 2 dy
= ⋅ 3y 2 = y
dt 12 dt 4 dt
 dV dy
Finally, use y = 6 and = 9 to solve for .
dt dt

π dy
9= (6)2
4 dt
dy 1
= ≈ 0.32
dt π
At the moment in question, the water level is rising at about 0.32
ft/min.
Related Rates Problem Strategy
1. Draw a picture and name the variables and constants. Use t for
time. Assume that all variable are differentiable functions of t.
2. Write down the numerical information (in term of the symbols
you have chosen.)
3. Write down what you are asked to find (usually a rate, expressed
as a derivative).
4. Write an equation that relates the variables. You may have to
combine two or more equations to get a single equation that
relates the variable whose rate you want to the variable whose
rates you know.
5. Differentiate with respect to t. Then express the rate you want in
terms of the rates and variables whose value you know.
6. Evaluate. Use known values to find the unknown rate.
Example 2: A hot air balloon rising straight up from a level field is
tracked by a range finder 150 m from the liftoff point. At the moment
π
the range finder’s elevation angle is , the angle is increasing at the rate
4
of 0.14 rad/min. How fast is the balloon rising at that moment?
Solution:
Example 3: A police cruiser, approaching a right-angled intersection
from the north, is chasing a speeding car that has turned the corner and
is now moving straight east. When the cruiser is 0.6 mi north of the
intersection and the car is 0.8 mi to the east, the police determine with
radar that the distance between them and the car is increasing at 20
mph. If the cruiser is moving at 60 mph at the instant of measurement,
what is the speed of the car?
Solution:
Example 4: A particle P moves clockwise at a constant rate along a
circle of radius 10 m centered at the origin. The particle’s initial position
is (0, 10) on the y-axes, and its destination is the point (10,0) on the 𝑥-
axes. Once the particle is in motion, the tangent line at 𝑃 intersects the
𝑥-axes at the point Q (which moves over time). If it takes the particle 30
sec to travel from start to finish, how fast is the point Q moving along
the 𝑥-axes when it is 20 m from the center of the circle?
Solution:
Example 5: A jet airliner is flying at a constant altitude of 12,000 ft
above sea level as it approaches a Pacific island. The aircraft comes
within the direct line of sight of a radar station located on the island,
and the radar indicates the initial angle between sea level and its line of
sight to the aircraft is 30∘ . How fast (in miles per hour) is the aircraft
approaching the island when first detected by the radar instrument if it
is turning upward (counterclockwise) at the rate of 2/3 deg/sec to keep
the aircraft within its direct line of sight?
Solution:
Example 6: Figure (a) given below shows a rope running through a
pulley at 𝑃 and bearing a weight 𝑊 at one end. The other end is held 5
ft above the ground in the hand 𝑀 of a worker. Suppose the pully is 25
ft above the ground, the rope is 45 ft long, and the worker is walking
rapidly away from the vertical line 𝑃𝑊 at the rate of 4 ft/sec. How fast
is the weight being raised when the worker’s hand is 21 ft away from
𝑃𝑊?
Solution: