Sets

Sets
A set is a collection of well - defined objects. A set is always denoted by a capital letter, say, A, B, C, etc.
For eg : sets of vowels, T = {a, e, i, o, u}
Here 𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢 are known as elements of T
Some important sets Some important symbols

𝑵 → set of natural numbers : → such that

𝑾 → set of whole numbers ∀ → for all

𝒁 → set of integers ∈ → belongs to

𝑸 → set of rational numbers ∉ → does not belongs to

𝑰 → set of irrational numbers ⊆ → subset of

𝑹 → set of real numbers ⊈ → not a subset of

𝑈 → universal set

⋃ → union

∩ → intersection

′ → complement

Cardinal number of a set → Number of elements in a set is called its cardinal number. Let 𝐴 be any set
then its cardinal number is 𝑛(𝐴).
For example, the cardinal number of set T = {a, e, i, o, u} is 5
Subsets → A set 𝐴 is said to be a subset of a set 𝐵 if every element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵. It is
denoted as 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.
 If a set has 𝑛 elements then number of subsets = 2𝑛

 Number of proper subsets = 2𝑛 − 1 (Note that set itself is not a proper subset)

For example, the number of subsets of a set T = {a, e, i, o, u} are 25 = 32 and number of proper subsets
are 32 − 1 = 31
Power set → The collection of all the subsets of a set 𝐴 is called the power set of 𝐴. It is denoted by 𝑃(𝐴).
In 𝑃(𝐴), every element is a set.
 Number of elements in the power set of a set having 𝑛 elements is 2𝑛
For example, Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3}
Power set of 𝐴, 𝑃(𝐴) = {{ }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {2,3}, {1,3}, {1,2,3}}
Clearly, there are 8 elements in 𝑃(𝐴)
Operation on sets

1. Union of sets → 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

2. Intersection of sets → 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

3. Difference of sets → 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵} and 𝐵 − 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}

4. Complement of a set → 𝐴′ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴} where 𝑈 is the universal set

For example, let 𝑋 = {2,3,7,9}, 𝑌 = {4,5,8,9} and 𝑈 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

Then 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 = {2,3,4,5,7,8,9}
𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 = {9}
𝑋 − 𝑌 = {2,3,7}
𝑌 − 𝑋 = {4,5,8}
𝑋 ′ = {1,4,5,6,8,10}
𝑌 ′ = {1,2,3,6,7,10}
 If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are finite sets such that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝜙, then 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵)
 If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are finite sets such that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ≠ 𝜙, then 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
 Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are finite sets. Then 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐶) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) −
𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

Relations & Functions

Ordered pair : A pair of numbers in which order does matter.

 (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑐, 𝑑) ⇔ 𝑎 = 𝑐 & 𝑏 = 𝑑

Cartesian product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is given by 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}

 In general, 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴
 If 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑝 and 𝑛(𝐵) = 𝑞, then 𝑛(𝐴 × 𝐵) = 𝑝𝑞

RELATIONS
A relation from set 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵 taken out in some manner.
i.e., 𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑎𝑅𝑏}
Domain : The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from set A to set B is called the
domain of the relation R.

Range & Co-domain : The set of all the second elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from set A to
set B is called the range of the relation R and the whole set B is called the Co-domain of the relation R.

Note that range ⊆ co-domain

Let 𝑹 be a relation from set 𝑨 to 𝑩 such that 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑛 and 𝑛(𝐵) = 𝑚, then
 Total number of possible relations = 𝑚𝑛
 Total number of non-empty relations = 2𝑚𝑛 − 1

Let 𝑹 be a relation on set 𝑨 such that 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑛, then

2
 Total number of possible relations = 2𝑛
2
 Total number of non-empty relations = 2𝑛 − 1

FUNCTIONS

A relation from A to B is called a function if ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, there must be a unique 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.
OR
A function is a relation in which no two ordered pairs have same first element.
OR
A function is a relation from A to B if each element of A has one and only one image in set B.

`
Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function such that 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑛 and 𝑛(𝐵) = 𝑚, then
 Total number of possible functions = 𝑚𝑛

Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐴 be a function such that 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑛, then

 Total number of possible functions = 𝑛𝑛

Some important functions and their graphs

1. Identity function : 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅. Domain and range of 𝑓 are 𝑅

2. Constant function : 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, where 𝑐 is a constant. Domain of 𝑓 is 𝑅

and range of 𝑓 is {𝑐}
3. Polynomial function : 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 , where 𝑛 is a non-
negative integer and 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … … 𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝑅.

𝑓(𝑥)
4. Rational functions : There are the functions of the type 𝑔(𝑥) where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomial
functions of 𝑥 defined in a domain, where 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0

5. The modulus function : 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
 |𝑥| 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
6. Signum function : 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 or 𝑓(𝑥) = { 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0 is known as
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0 −1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
signum function. The domain of 𝑓 is R and the range of 𝑓 is {−1,0,1}

7. Greatest integer function : A function 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑥] ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 assumes the value
of the greatest integer, less than or equal to 𝑥. Such a function is known as greatest integer function

https://bit.ly/3Edl7Xs
 Trigonometric Functions

𝜋
Radian measure = 180 × Degree measure

180
Degree measure = × Radian measure
𝜋

Trigonometric identities
 cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1
 1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
 1 + cot 2 𝑥 = cosec 2 𝑥

Trigonometric ratios of standard angles

Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°

sin 𝜃 0 1 1 √3 1 √3 1 0 1 √3 −1 √3 1 0
− − −
2 √2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos 𝜃 1 √3 1 1 0 1 √3 −1 √3 1 0 1 √3 1
− − −
2 √2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
tan 𝜃 0 1 1 √3 ∞ −√3 1 0 1 √3 ∞ −√3 1 0
− − −
√3 √3 √3 √3
cot 𝜃 ∞ √3 1 1 0 1 −√3 ∞ √3 1 0 1 −√3 ∞
− −
√3 √3 √3 √3
sec 𝜃 1 2 √2 2 ∞ −2 2 −1 2 −2 ∞ 2 2 1
− −
√3 √3 √3 √3
cosec 𝜃 ∞ 2 √2 2 1 2 2 ∞ −2 2 −1 2 −2 −
− −
√3 √3 √3 √3 ∞

Allied angles
T-ratio −θ 90 − 𝜃 90 + 𝜃 180 − 𝜃 180 + 𝜃 270 − 𝜃 270 + 𝜃 360 − 𝜃 360 + 𝜃

sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃

cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
tan 𝜃 − tan 𝜃 cot 𝜃 − cot 𝜃 − tan 𝜃 tan 𝜃 cot 𝜃 − cot 𝜃 − tan 𝜃 tan 𝜃

cot 𝜃 − cot 𝜃 tan 𝜃 −tan 𝜃 − cot 𝜃 cot 𝜃 tan 𝜃 − tan 𝜃 − cot 𝜃 cot 𝜃

sec 𝜃 sec 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 − cosec 𝜃 − sec 𝜃 − sec 𝜃 − cosec 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 sec 𝜃 sec 𝜃

cosec 𝜃 − cosec 𝜃 sec 𝜃 sec 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 − cosec 𝜃 − sec 𝜃 − sec 𝜃 − cosec 𝜃 cosec 𝜃

Trigonometric Identities
 Trigonometric Equations

1. sin 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
𝜋
2. cos 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍

3. tan 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍

4. sin 𝑥 = sin 𝛼 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 𝛼, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍

5. cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 𝑎, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍

6. tan 𝑥 = tan 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑎, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍

7. sin2 𝑥 = sin2 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑎, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍

8. cos 2 𝑥 = cos2 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑎, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 https://t.me/scoreplus

official
9. tan2 𝑥 = tan2 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑎, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
 Linear Inequalities

Inequalities → Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbols <, >, ≤ or ≥ form an
inequality. For example: 3𝑥 < 20, 4𝑥 + 𝑦 < 12.
Solution of an Inequality → The values of 𝑥, which make an inequality a true statement, are called solutions
of the inequality.
Rules of inequality
 Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an inequality without affecting the
sign of inequality. E.g. 𝑥 < 9 is same as 𝑥 + 3 < 9 + 3
 Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied (or divided) by the same positive number without affecting
the sign of inequality.
E.g. : 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 6 is same as (𝑥 + 𝑦) × 5 < 6 × 5
 But when both sides are multiplied or divided by a negative number, then the sign of inequality is
reversed. e.g: 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 7 is same as (𝑥 + 2) × (−5) > 7 × (−5)

Illustration : Solve 30𝑥 < 160 when (i) 𝑥 is a natural number, (ii) 𝑥 is an integer, (iii) 𝑥 is real number
Solution: Dividing the inequality by 30, we get
30𝑥 160
< 30
30
16
Or 𝑥 < 3
Case 1: 𝑥 is a natural number. Then solution set is {1,2,3,4,5}
Case 2: 𝑥 is an integer. Then solution set is {… … − 4, −3, −32, −1,0,1,2,3,4,5}
16
Case 3: 𝑥 is a real number. Then solution set is (−∞, 3 )
We can also represent case 3 solution using number line

To find plane containing the origin

- If the origin satisfies the inequality of the half plane, then the half plane contains the origin. This
inequality represents the half plane containing origin.
- If the origin does not satisfy the inequality of the half plane, then the half plane does not contain the
origin. This inequality represent the half plane, which does not contain the origin.

Shading

- A line divides the plane in two half planes. We check whether the given half plane
contains the origin. If so, then the inequality represents the half plane containing the origin and we shade
the half plane.
- If the origin does not satisfy the inequality, then the inequality represents the other half
plane not containing origin and we shade this half plane.
Illustration : Consider 𝑥 + 2𝑦 > 9

Graphical Solution of Linear Inequality in two variables

- After identification of the half plane, we shade the half planes of the given inequality. The points of the
enclosed area of the shaded portion are the solution of the given system of inequality

Illustration : Solve the following system of inequalities graphically 5𝑥 + 4𝑦 ≤ 40, 𝑥 > 2 & 𝑦 ≥ 3
Solution: Steps-
1 Draw lines for 5𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 40 & 𝑥 = 2 & 𝑦 = 3
2 Find the solution region for each of these linear inequalities
3 Find common region. Common region is the solution region.
 Permutations and combinations
Factorial Notation → The continued product of first n natural numbers is called the 'factorial' and is
denoted by n! i.e. n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × … × n or n! = n × (n − 1)!
Note : 0! = 1
Permutations → Arrangements (order does matter)
Number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time, when all the elements are not alike, is given
𝑛!
by nPr or 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) where P(n, r) = (𝑛−𝑟)!

Number of permutations of n objects taken all at a time = n!

Number of permutations of n objects taken all at a time in which p are of 𝐼 kind and q are of 𝐼𝐼 kind and
n!
remaining are different = p! q!

Illustration : How many 3-digit numbers can be formed utilizing digits 1,2,3,4,7,9 lying within 300 and 500
if repetition of digits is allowed?
Solution : Here, we have to form a 3 digit number lying between 300 and 500 using digits 1,2,3,4,7,9 such
that repetition of digits is allowed.
Unit's digit can be filled by any one of the given numbers ⇒ No. of ways to fill unit's digit = 6
Ten's digit can be filled by any one of the given numbers ⇒ No. of ways to fill ten's digit = 6
Hundreds of digits can only be filled by numbers 3,4 ⇒ No. of ways to fill hundredth digit = 2
∴ The no. of ways to form a 3 digit number lying between 300 and 500 = 6 × 6 × 2 = 72
Illustration : In a dictionary, if all permutations of the letters of the word AGAIN are arranged in an order.
What is the 49th word?
Start with the letter 𝐴 The arranging the other 4 letters: 𝐺, 𝐴, 𝐼, 𝑁 = 4! = 24 First 24 words

4!
Start with the letter 𝐺 arrange 𝐴, 𝐴, 𝐼 and 𝑁 in different ways: = 12 Next 12 words
2!

4!
Start with the letter 𝐼 arrange 𝐴, 𝐴, 𝐺 and 𝑁 in different ways: 2! = 12 Next 12 words

This accounts up to the 48th word. The 49th word is "NAAGI".

Illustration : The number of words that can be created from all the characters of the word 'CORONAVIRUS'?
Solution: Here we have to create words using the letters of the word 'CORONAVIRUS'
In total there are 11 letters in the word 'CORONAVIRUS' ⇒ 𝑛 = 11.
The letter 𝑂 is repeated twice in the word 'CORONAVIRUS' ⇒ 𝑟1 = 2.
The letter R is repeated twice in the word 'CORONAVIRUS' ⇒ 𝑟2 = 2.
11!
∴ The no. of words that can be formed using all the letters of the word 'CORONAVIRUS' = 2!×2!
Combinations → Selections (order does not matter)
Number of combinations (selections) of n distinct objects taken r at a time is given by nCr where nCr =
n!
r!(n−r)!

Illustration : Out of 7 consonants and 5 vowels, words are to be formed by involving 4 consonants and 3
vowels. The number of such words formed is?
Solution: Given that the No. of consonants = 7 and No. of vowels = 5.
Here we have to form words that contain 4 consonants and 3 vowels.
⇒ No. of ways to select 4 consonants out of 7 consonants = 7 𝒞4
⇒ No. of ways to select 3 vowels out of 5 vowels = 5 𝐶3
⇒ No. of words that can be formed containing 4 consonants and 3 vowels in it = 7 𝐶4 × 5 𝐶3 = 350
 Sequences and Series
Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) : An arithmetic progression (A.P.) is a sequence in which terms increase or
decrease regularly by the same constant. This constant is called common difference of the A.P. The sequence
a1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … , 𝑎𝑛 is an A.P. if and only if 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 = 𝑎3 − 𝑎2 = ⋯ = 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑑
 The general term or the nth term of the A.P. is given by an = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛 𝑛
 Sum of first terms of an A.P. is given by Sn = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] and Sn = 2 [𝑎 + 𝑙] where 𝑙 is the last
term, i.e., a + (n − 1)𝑑.

If a constant is added or subtracted from each term of an AP, then the resulting sequence is an AP with
same common difference.

If each term of an AP is multiplied or divided by a non-zero constant 𝑘, then the resulting sequence is also
an AP, with common difference kd or d/k where d = common difference.

 Any three terms of an AP can be taken as 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑.

 Any four terms of an AP can be taken as 𝑎 − 3𝑑,𝑎 − 𝑑, a +𝑑, a +3 d.

 Any five terms of an AP can be taken as 𝑎 − 2𝑑, 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑.

Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) : Let a, b, c are in A.P. then b is called the A.M. between a and c which is given by
a+c
b= 2 .
1
Illustration : If the sum of 𝑛 terms of an A.P. is 𝑛P + 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)Q, where P and Q are constants, find the
common difference.
Solution : Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 be the given A.P. Then
1
S𝑛 = 𝑛P + 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)Q
Therefore S1 = 𝑎1 = P, S2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 = 2P + Q
So that 𝑎2 = S2 − S1 = P + Q
Hence, the common difference is given by 𝑑 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 = (P + Q) − P = Q.

Illustration : If the sum of three numbers in AP is 24, and the product is 440, what are the numbers?
Solution : Let the three numbers be 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎, and 𝑎 + 𝑑
Sum = (𝑎 − 𝑑) + 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) = 24
= 3𝑎 = 24
=𝑎=8
Also, (𝑎 − 𝑑)(𝑎)(𝑎 + 𝑑) = 440
After solving, we get 𝑑 = ±3
When 𝑑 = +3, the numbers are 5, 8, and 11
When 𝑑 = −3, the numbers are 11, 8, and 5.
Geometric Progression (G.P.) : A sequence of non-zero numbers is said to be a geometric progression, if the
ratio of each term, except the first one, by its preceding term is always the same, i.e., a1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … , 𝑎𝑛 is a
a 𝑎 𝑎
G.P. if and only if 𝑎2 = 𝑎3 = ⋯ = 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑟
1 2 𝑛−1

The general term or the 𝑛th term of the G.P. is given by an = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1.
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1) 𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
Sum of first terms of an G.P. is given by Sn = if r > 1 , Sn = if r < 1 and Sn = an if r = 1.
𝑟−1 1−𝑟
a
Sum to infinity of a GP is given by : S∞ = where 𝑟 < 1.
1−r
Geometric Mean (G.M.) : Let a, b, c are in G.P. then b is called the G.M. between a and c which is given by
b = √ac.
𝑎
 Three terms of a GP can be taken as , 𝑎 and 𝑎𝑟.
𝑟

𝑎 𝑎
 Four terms of a GP can be taken as 𝑟 3 , 𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 and 𝑎𝑟 3.

𝑎 𝑎
 Five terms of a GP can be taken as 𝑟 2 , 𝑎, 𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 and 𝑎𝑟 2.

Illustration : The first term of a GP is 1. The sum of the third and the fifth terms is 90. Find the common ratio
of GP.
Solution : Let common ratio be 𝑟 and 𝑎 = 1
ATQ
𝑎3 + 𝑎5 = 90
𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 4 = 90
𝑟 4 + 𝑟 2 − 90 = 0
𝑟 4 + 10𝑟 2 − 9𝑟 2 − 90 = 0
𝑟2 − 9 = 0
𝑟 = +3 or −3
1 1 1 1
Illustration : Find the sum of the infinite geometric series −1 + 2 − 4 + 8 − 16 + ⋯
1
Solution : Here 𝑎 = −1 and 𝑟 = − 2
𝑎
∴ Sum of the given series = 1−𝑟
1 2
=− 1 = −3
1+
2

Sum of 𝒏 terms of some special series

 Sum of first 𝑛 natural numbers
𝑛(𝑛+1)
∑𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛 =
2

 Sum of squares of first 𝑛 natural numbers

𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
∑ 𝑛2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 =
6

 Sum of cubes of first 𝑛 natural numbers

𝑛(𝑛+1) 2
∑ 𝑛3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = ( )
2

Illustration : Find the sum of the series whose 𝑛th term is

𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 4)
Solution : 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 4)
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑛3 + 5𝑛2 + 4𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛3 + 5 ∑ 𝑛2 + 4 ∑ 𝑛
𝑛(𝑛+1) 2 5𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1) 4𝑛(𝑛+1)
=[ ] + +
2 8 2
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛2 +𝑛 5
= [ + (2𝑛 + 1) + 4]
2 2 3
𝑛(𝑛+1) 3𝑛2 +23𝑛+34
= [ ]
2 6
𝑛(𝑛+1)
= (3𝑛2 + 23𝑛 + 34)
2
 Straight Lines
 Distance between two points P(x1 , 𝑦1 ) and Q(x2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by 𝑃𝑄 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

For example, distance between the points (6, −4) and (3,0) is √(3 − 6)2 + (0 + 4)2 = √9 + 16 = 5 units.
 The coordinates of the point R which divides the line segment joining two points P(x1 , 𝑦1 ) and Q(x2 , 𝑦2 )
𝑚𝑥2 +𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 +𝑛𝑦1
internally in the ratio 𝑚 ∶ 𝑛 is given by ( , ).
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛

For example, the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining A (1, −3) and 𝐵(−3,9)
1.(−3)+3.1 1.9+3⋅(−3)
internally, in the ratio 1 ∶ 3 are given by 𝑥 = 1+3 = 0 and 𝑦 = 1+3 = 0

 The coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining two points P(x1 , 𝑦1 ) and Q(x2 , 𝑦2 ) are
x1 +𝑥2 y1 +𝑦2
( , )
2 2

1
 Area of the triangle whose vertices are (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) is |𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 ) +
2
𝑥3 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )|
1
For example, the area of the triangle, whose vertices are (4,4), (3, −2) and (−3,16) is 2 |4(−2 − 16) +
|−54|
3(16 − 4) + (−3)(4 + 2)| = = 27.
2

Slope of a line (Gradient)

 When 𝜃 (angle made by +ve x-axis with given line in anticlockwise direction) is given then slope (m) =
tan 𝜃.

Illustration : The slope of a line making inclination of 60∘ with the positive direction of 𝑥-axis is 𝑚 =
tan 60° = √3
y −𝑦 y −𝑦
 When two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) on a line are given then m = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = 𝑥1 −𝑥2
2 1 1 2

−2−(−2) 0
Illustration : The slope of a line passing through the points (3, −2) and (7, −2) is 𝑚 = =4=0
7−3
a
 When equation of a line is given ax + by + c = 0 then m = − b.

𝑎 9
Illustration : If the equation of a line is 9𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 7 = 0 then slope of the line is 𝑚 = − 𝑏 = − 2

Condition of parallel and perpendicular lines

Let m1 and m2 are the slopes of the lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 , then
- 𝑙1 ∥ 𝑙2 ⇔ m1 = m2
- 𝑙1 ⊥ 𝑙2 ⇔ m1 × m2 = −1

Angle between two lines : An acute angle (say θ) between lines with slopes m1 and m2 is given by tan 𝜃 =
2m −𝑚1
|1+𝑚 |.
1 𝑚2
1
Illustration : If the slope of two lines is 2 and 3 then find the angle between these two lines.
1 2 m −𝑚1
We have 𝑚1 = 2 and 𝑚2 = 3. Then tan 𝜃 = |1+𝑚 |
1 𝑚2
1 5
3−
2
tan 𝜃 = | 1 | = | 25 |
1+3( ) 2
2
tan 𝜃 = 1
𝜋
⇒𝜃=4
 Different forms of the equation of a straight line

a) Slope intercept form of a line:

- The equation of a line with slope m & making an intercept c on y – axis is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
- The equation of a line with slope m & making an intercept d on x – axis is 𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑑)

b) Point - slope form of a line:

The equation of a line which passes through the point (given) P(x1 , 𝑦1 ) and has the slope ‘m’ is 𝑦 − 𝑦1 =
𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

c) Two point form of a line:

y−y1 𝑥−𝑥1
The equation of a line passing through two points P(x1 , 𝑦1 ) and Q(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is 𝑦 =𝑥
2 −𝑦1 2 −𝑥1

d) Intercept form of a line:

The equation of a line which cuts off intercepts ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively from the x – axis and y – axis is
x 𝑦
+ 𝑏 = 1.
𝑎
e) Normal form or Perpendicular form of a line:
The equation of the straight line upon which the length of the perpendicular from the origin is p and this
Perpendicular makes an angle 𝑎 with x – axis is x cos 𝑎 + 𝑦 sin 𝑎 = 𝑝.

ax1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐
 Distance of a point P(x1 , 𝑦1 ) from a line ax + by + c = 0 is d = | √a2 +b2
|.

Illustration : Find the distance of a point (2,3) from a line −2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4 = 0.

(−2)(2)+3(3)+4 9
Solution : The distance of a point (2,3) from a line −2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4 = 0 is 𝑑 = | |= units
√13 √13
c −𝑐1
 Distance between two ∥ lines : ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0 is d = |√a22 |
+b2

Illustration : Find the distance between the parallel lines 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 7 = 0 and 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 5 = 0

|7−5| 2
Solution : Here A = 3, B = −4, C1 = 7 and C2 = 5. Therefore, the required distance is 𝑑 = 2 =5
√3 +(−4)2

 Ax + By + C = 0
𝐴
- Slope = − 𝐵
C
- 𝑥 – intercept = − A
𝐶
- 𝑦 – intercept = − 𝐵
|𝐶|
- Distance from origin = √A2
+B2

For example, if the equation of a line is 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5 = 0 then

𝐴 2 𝐶 5 𝐶 5
Slope = − 𝐵 = − 3, 𝑥 − intercept= − 𝐴 = − 2, 𝑦 − intercept= − 𝐵 = − 3
|𝐶| 5
And distance from origin = √A2 = units
+B2 √13
 Conic Sections
CIRCLE
The equation of a circle with centre (ℎ, 𝑘) and the radius 𝑟 is (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
The equation of a circle with centre (0,0) and the radius 𝑟 is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2

For example : If the centre of a circle is (−3,2) and radius is 4 units then the equation of the circle is
(𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 16
PARABOLA
Equation Vertex Axis of Focus Length of latus Equation of
parabola rectum directrix
𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 (0,0) x − axis (a, 0) |4a| units x = −a
𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦 (0,0) y − axis (0, a) |4a| units y = −a
Illustration : For the parabola 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥
Comparing 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 with 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥, we get 𝑎 = 2
Vertex is (0,0)
Axis of parabola is 𝑥 −axis
Focus is (2,0)
Length of latus rectum = |4𝑎| units = 8 units
Equation of directrix is 𝑥 = −𝑎, i.e., 𝑥 = −2
Illustration : For the parabola 𝑥 2 = −16𝑦
Comparing 𝑥 2 = −16𝑦 with 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦, we get 𝑎 = −4
Vertex is (0,0)
Axis of parabola is 𝑦 −axis
Focus is (0, −4)
Length of latus rectum = |4𝑎| units = 16 units
Equation of directrix is 𝑦 = −𝑎, i.e., 𝑦 = 4

ELLIPSE
Equation Major axis Minor axis Vertices Foci Eccentricity Length of Equation
and its and its latus rectum of directrix
length length
x2 𝑦 2 x − axis y − axis (±a, 0) (±c, 0) c 2𝑏 2 a
x = ±e
+ =1 e= | | units
𝑎2 𝑏 2 a 𝑎
|2𝑎| units |2𝑏| units
x2 𝑦 2 y − axis x − axis (0, ±a) (0, ±c) c 2𝑏 2 a
y = ±e
+ =1 e= | | units
𝑏 2 𝑎2 a 𝑎
|2𝑎| units |2𝑏| units

Relation between 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 : 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

Illustration : For the ellipse 9𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 36

𝑥2 𝑦2
The given equation of ellipse is written as + =1
4 9
𝑥2 𝑦2
Comparing it with 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 = 1, we get 𝑏 = 2 and 𝑎 = 3
Also, 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 ⇒ 𝑐 = √5
Major axis is 𝑦 −axis and length of major axis is |2𝑎| units, i.e., 6 units
Minor axis is 𝑥 −axis and length of minor axis is |2𝑏| units, i.e., 4 units
Coordinate of foci are (0, √5) and (0, −√5)
Coordinate of vertices are (0,3) and (0, −3)
𝑐 √5
eccentricity, 𝑒 = =
𝑎 3
2𝑏 2 8
Length of latus rectum = | | units = 3 units
𝑎
𝑎 9
Equation of directrix, 𝑦 = ± 𝑒 = ±
√5

HYPERBOLA
Equation Transverse Conjugate Vertices Foci Eccentricity Length of Equation
axis and its axis and latus of directrix
length its length rectum
x2 𝑦 2 x − axis y − axis (±a, 0) (±c, 0) c 2𝑏 2 x = ±e
a
− =1 e= | | units
𝑎2 𝑏 2 a 𝑎
|2𝑎| units |2𝑏| units
y2 𝑥 2 y − axis x − axis (0, ±a) (0, ±c) c 2𝑏 2 y = ±e
a
− =1 e= | | units
𝑎2 𝑏 2 a 𝑎
|2𝑎| units |2𝑏| units

Relation between 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 : 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Illustration : For the hyperbola 16𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 = 576

𝑥2 𝑦2
The given equation of hyperbola is written as 36 − 64 = 1
𝑥2 𝑦2
Comparing it with 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1, we get 𝑎 = 6 and 𝑏 = 8
Transverse axis is 𝑥 −axis and length of transverse axis = |2𝑎| units, i.e., 12 units
Conjugate axis is 𝑦 −axis and length of conjugate axis = |2𝑏| units, i.e., 16 units
Coordinates of vertices are (±6,0)
Also, 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ⇒ 𝑐 = 10
Coordinate of foci are (±10,0)
𝑐 10 5
Eccentricity, 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 6 = 3
2𝑏 2 64
Length of latus rectum = | | units = units
𝑎 3
𝑎 18
Equation of directrix, 𝑥 = ± 𝑒 = ± 5
 Introduction to 3D Geometry
 Any point on x −axis is of the form (x, 0,0)
 Any point on y −axis is of the form (0, y, 0)
 Any point on z −axis is of the form (0,0, z)
 Any point on XY −plane is of the form (x, y, 0)
 Any point on YZ −plane is of the form (0, y, z)
 Any point on ZX −plane is of the form (x, 0, z)

 Distance of a point P(x, y, z) from x −axis → √𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 units

 Distance of a point P(x, y, z) from y −axis → √𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 units
 Distance of a point P(x, y, z) from z −axis → √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 units
 Distance of a point P(x, y, z) from XY −plane → 𝑧 units
 Distance of a point P(x, y, z) from YZ −plane → 𝑥 units
 Distance of a point P(x, y, z) from ZX −plane → 𝑦 units

Distance between two points P(x1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and Q(x2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is given by

𝑃𝑄 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

Illustration : Find the distance between the points 𝑃(1, −3,4) and 𝑄(−4,1,2).
Solution : The distance 𝑃𝑄 between the points 𝑃(1, −3,4) and 𝑄(−4,1,2) is
𝑃𝑄 = √(−4 − 1)2 + (1 + 3)2 + (2 − 4)2
= √25 + 16 + 4
= √45 = 3√5 units
The coordinates of the point R which divides the line segment joining two points P(x1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and
𝑚𝑥2 +𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 +𝑛𝑦1 𝑚𝑧2 +𝑛𝑧1
Q(x2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) internally and externally in the ratio 𝑚 ∶ 𝑛 are given by ( , , ) and
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
𝑚𝑥2 −𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 −𝑛𝑦1 𝑚𝑧2 −𝑛𝑧1
( , , ) , respectively.
𝑚−𝑛 𝑚−𝑛 𝑚−𝑛

The coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining two points P(x1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and Q(x2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) are
x1 +𝑥2 y1 +𝑦2 z1 +𝑧2
( , , ).
2 2 2

Illustration : Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining the points (1, −2,3)
and (3,4, −5) in the ratio 2: 3 (i) internally, and (ii) externally.

https://bit.ly/3Edl7Xs
Solution : (i) Let P(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be the point which divides line segment joining A(1, −2,3) and 𝐵(3,4, −5)
internally in the ratio 2 ∶ 3. Therefore
2(3)+3(1) 9 2(4)+3(−2) 2 2(−5)+3(3) −1
𝑥 = 2+3 = 5 , 𝑦 = = , 𝑧 = =
2+3 5 2+3 5
9 2 −1
Thus, the required point is (5 , 5 , 5 )
(ii) Let P(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be the point which divides segment joining A(1, −2,3) and B(3,4, −5) externally in the ratio
2 ∶ 3. Then
2(3)+(−3)(1) 2(4)+(−3)(−2) 2(−5)+(−3)(3)
𝑥 = 2+(−3) = −3, 𝑦 = = −14, 𝑧 = = 19
2+(−3) 2+(−3)
Therefore, the required point is (−3, −14,19).
The coordinates of the centroid of a triangle whose vertices are (x1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), (x2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) and (x3 , 𝑦3 , 𝑧3 )
x1 +x2 +𝑥3 y1 +y2 +𝑦3 z1 +z2 +𝑧3
are ( , , )
3 3 3

Illustration : The centroid of a triangle ABC is at the point (1,1,1). If the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵 are (3, −5,7)
and (−1,7, −6), respectively, find the coordinates of the point 𝐶.
Solution : Let the coordinates of C be (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and the coordinates of the centroid G be (1,1,1). Then
𝑥+3−1 𝑦−5+7 𝑧+7−6
= 1, i.e., 𝑥 = 1; 3 = 1, i.e., 𝑦 = 1; 3 = 1, i.e., 𝑧 = 2.
3
Hence, coordinates of C are (1,1,2).

Limits and Derivatives

The limit of a function 𝒇 is a tool for investigating the behavior of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 gets closer and closer to a
particular number 𝑎.
The notation lim  𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 is read "the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 is 𝐿"
𝑥→𝑎

Right hand limit

If 𝑥 approaches from the right, i.e., from larger values of 𝑥 than 𝑎, then the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is called the Right
Hand Limit (RHL) and is written as lim𝑥→𝑎+  𝑓(𝑥)
To find RHL, put 𝑥 = 𝑎 + ℎ and replace 𝑥 → 𝑎+ by ℎ → 0 and then simplify limℎ→0  𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) using
appropriate formula.
Left hand limit
If 𝑥 approaches a from the left, i.e., from the smaller values of 𝑥 than 𝑎, then the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is called the
left hand limit (LHL) and is written as lim−  𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

To find LHL, put 𝑥 = 𝑎 − ℎ and replace 𝑥 → 𝑎− by ℎ → 0 and then simplify limℎ→0  𝑓(𝑎 − ℎ) using appropriate
formula.
Note : When LHL = RHL then we can say that the limiting value of a function exist
i.e., lim  𝑓(𝑥) = lim𝑥→𝑎−  𝑓(𝑥) = lim𝑥→𝑎+  𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

Some basic results of limits

a) lim sin 𝑥 = 0 b) lim cos 𝑥 = 1 c) lim tan 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥

d) lim =1 e) lim =0 f) lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

g) 𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛 h) log(1 + 𝑥) i) 𝑒 𝑥 −1
lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 lim =1 lim =1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥
 j) 𝑎𝑥 −1 k) lim (1 + 𝑥)1/𝑥 = 𝑒 l) 1 𝑥
lim = log 𝑒 𝑎 𝑥→0 lim (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑒
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→∞

sin 4𝑥
Illustration : Find lim𝑥→0   sin 2𝑥
sin 4𝑥 sin 4𝑥 2𝑥
We have lim𝑥→0   sin 2𝑥 = lim𝑥→0  [ ⋅ sin 2𝑥 . 2]
4𝑥
sin 4𝑥 sin 2𝑥
= 2 ⋅ lim𝑥→0  [ ]÷[ ]
4𝑥 2𝑥
sin 4𝑥 sin 2𝑥
= 2 ⋅ lim4𝑥→0  [ ] ÷ lim2𝑥→0  [ ]
4𝑥 2𝑥

= 2.1.1 = 2(as 𝑥 → 0,4𝑥 → 0 and 2𝑥 → 0)

𝑥 15 −1
Illustration : Find lim𝑥→1   𝑥 10 −1
𝑥 15 −1 𝑥 15 −1 𝑥 10 −1
Consider lim𝑥→1   𝑥 10 −1 = lim𝑥→1  [ ÷ ]
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
𝑥 15 −1 𝑥 10 −1
= lim𝑥→1  [ ] ÷ lim𝑥→1  [ ]
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
= 15(1)14 ÷ 10(1)9
3
= 15 ÷ 10 = 2

𝑒 5𝑥 −1
Illustration : Find lim  
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑒 5𝑥 −1 𝑒 5𝑥 −1
Consider lim   = 5 × lim   = 5×1= 5
𝑥→0 𝑥 5𝑥→0 5𝑥

Derivative → Suppose 𝑓 is a real valued function and a is a point in its domain of definition. The derivative of
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 at 𝑎 is defined by lim  
ℎ→0 ℎ
provided this limit exists. Derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) at a is denoted by 𝑓 ′ (𝑎).
Note : Derivative is the rate of change of a quantity with respect to another quantity.
Differentiation → It is the process of finding a derivative.
Chain rule : Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) be a differentiable function of 𝑢 and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) be a differentiable function of 𝑥
Then 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] is called a function of a function or composite function.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
In this case, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 . 𝑑𝑥
This rule is called the chain rule.
Formulae of derivative
y or f(x) dy
𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ′ 𝑜𝑟 𝑦1 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
dx

1. [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 → 𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

2. 𝑘 → 0

3. 𝑘𝑥 → 𝑘

4. 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑘 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

5. sin[𝑓(𝑥)] → cos[𝑓(𝑥)] × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

6. cos[𝑓(𝑥)] → −sin[𝑓(𝑥)] × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

 7. tan[𝑓(𝑥)] → sec 2 [𝑓(𝑥)] × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

8. cot[𝑓(𝑥)] → −cosec 2 [𝑓(𝑥)] × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

9. sec[𝑓(𝑥)] → sec[𝑓(𝑥)] tan[𝑓(𝑥)] × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

10. cosec[𝑓(𝑥)] → − cosec[𝑓(𝑥)] . cot[𝑓(𝑥)] × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

11. 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑟(𝑥) → 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥) − 𝑟′(𝑥)

12. Product rule

(𝑢. 𝑣)′ → 𝑢. 𝑣 ′ + 𝑣. 𝑢′
(𝑢. 𝑣. 𝑤)′ → 𝑢. 𝑣. 𝑤 ′ + 𝑢. 𝑣 ′ . 𝑤 + 𝑢′ . 𝑣. 𝑤

13. Quotient rule

𝑢 ′ → 𝑣.𝑢′ −𝑢.𝑣 ′
(𝑣 ) 𝑣2
1
14. √𝑓(𝑥) → × 𝑓′(𝑥)
2√𝑓(𝑥)

1 1
15. → − [𝑓(𝑥)]2 × 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥)

1 −𝑛
16. → × 𝑓′(𝑥)
[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1

Illustration : If 𝑦 = 𝑥1/3 + 𝑥1/2 then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑥1/3 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑥1/2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= 3 𝑥 −2/3 + 2 𝑥 −1/2
𝑑𝑥

Illustration : If 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 (3 − 6𝑥 −9 ) then
Using product rule
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
= (3 − 6𝑥 −9 ) (𝑥 5 ) + 𝑥 5 (3 − 6𝑥 −9 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 5𝑥 4 (3 − 6𝑥 −9 )
+𝑥 5 (36𝑥 −10 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 15𝑥 4 − 30𝑥 −5 + 36𝑥 −5 = 15𝑥 4 − 66𝑥 −5
𝑑𝑥

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 2 𝑥2
Illustration : If 𝑦 = 𝑥+1 − 3𝑥−1 then
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 2 𝑑 𝑥2
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥+1) − 𝑑𝑥 (3𝑥−1)
𝑑𝑥
By quotient rule
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥+1) (2)−2 (𝑥+1) (3𝑥−1) (𝑥 2 )−𝑥 2 (3𝑥−1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=[ ]−[ ]
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥+1)2 (3𝑥−1)2
(𝑥+1)(0)−2(1) (3𝑥−1)(2𝑥)−(𝑥 2 )(3)
=[ ]−[ ]
(𝑥+1)2 (3𝑥−1)2
−2 6𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3𝑥 2
= (𝑥+1)2 − [ ]
(3𝑥−1)2
−2 3𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2
= (𝑥+1)2 − [ (3𝑥−1)2 ]
−2 𝑥(3𝑥−2)
= (𝑥+1)2 − (3𝑥−1)2

Illustration : If 𝑦 = sin(cos 𝑥) then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (sin(cos 𝑥))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= cos(cos 𝑥) × 𝑑𝑥 (cos 𝑥)
= cos(cos 𝑥) × − sin 𝑥
= − sin 𝑥 . cos(cos 𝑥)
Probability
Number of outcomes favourable to A 𝑛(𝐴)
Probability of an event : 𝑃(𝐴) = =
Total number of possible outcomes 𝑛(𝑆)
where 𝑛(𝐴) = number of elements in set 𝐴, 𝑛(𝑆) = number of elements in set 𝑆
Sample space : The set of all possible outcomes, when a random experiment is done is known as sample
space.
For example,
Tossing a coin : On tossing a coin there are two possibilities either head may come up or tail may come up.
Therefore, 𝑆 = {𝐻, 𝑇}
Tossing two coins : When flipping two coins, the number of possible outcomes are four, i.e., 𝑆 =
{𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝑇}
Tossing three coins : When flipping two coins, the number of possible outcomes are 8, i.e.,, 𝑆 =
{𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝐻𝐻, 𝑇𝑇𝐻, 𝐻𝐻𝑇, 𝐻𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝑇𝑇}
Note : In general, if you have 𝑛 coins, then the possible number of outcomes will be 2𝑛
A die is thrown : A die is a well-balanced cube with its six faces marked with numbers (dots) from 1 to 6, one
number on the one face. The plural of die is dice. Therefore, 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Two dice are thrown : When two dice are thrown together, we will get 62 = 36 pairs of possible outcomes.
(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
(3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
Therefore, 𝑆 =
(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
{(6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)}
Cards
A pack of cards consists of four suits i.e., Spades, Hearts, Diamonds and Clubs. Each suit consists of 13 cards,
nine cards numbered 2, 3, 4, . . . . . . , 10 and an Ace, a King, a Queen and a Jack or Knave. Colour of Spades and
Clubs is black and that of Hearts and Diamonds is red. King, Queen and Jack cards are called face cards.
 Mutually exclusive events → If 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0 then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be mutually exclusive events

Illustration : Two dice are thrown and the sum of the numbers is noted.
Consider the events, C: 'the sum is less than 4'. D: 'the sum is greater than 11'.
Then, C = {(1,1), (2,1), (1,2)} and D = {(6,6)}
Since 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷 = 𝜙 and hence, 𝐶 and 𝐷 are mutually exclusive events.
 Exhaustive events → If 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , … , 𝐸𝑛 are 𝑛 events of a sample space 𝑆 and if 𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 ∪ 𝐸3 ∪ … ∪ 𝐸𝑛 =
⋃𝑛𝑖=1 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑆 then the events 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , … , 𝐸𝑛 are called exhaustive events.

Illustration : Consider the experiment of throwing a die. We have 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}.

Consider the events
A ∶ 'a number less than 4 appears',
B ∶ 'a number greater than 2 but less than 5 appears'
C : 'a number greater than 4 appears'.
Then A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4} and C = {5,6}.
We observe that A ∪ B ∪ C = {1,2,3} ∪ {3,4} ∪ {5,6} = S.
Such events A, B and 𝐶 are called exhaustive events.
 Complement of an event → 𝑃(𝐸 ′ ) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸) where 𝐸 ′ is the complement of the event 𝐸
2 2 9
Illustration : If 11 is the probability of an event, then the probability of the event 'not 𝐴'= 1 − 11 = 11

ALGEBRA OF EVENTS
1. At least one of the events will occur (𝐴 or 𝐵)
P(A ∪ B) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
 If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive events, then
P(A ∪ B) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵)
2. Both A and B will occur (𝐴 and 𝐵)
P(A ∩ B) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
3. Only A will occur (A but not 𝐵) (Exactly A will occur)
P(A ∩ B′ ) = 𝑃(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
4. Only B will occur (B but not 𝐴) (Exactly B will occur)
P(B ∩ A′ ) = 𝑃(𝐵 − 𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
5. Exactly one of the two events will occur
𝑃[(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ′ ) ∪ (𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵)] = 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ′ ) + 𝑃(𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵)
= 𝑃(𝐴) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
= P(A ∪ B) − P(A ∩ B) Or 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 2𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
6. Both will not occur (Neither A not B) (not A and not B)
P(A′ ∩ B′ ) = 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
7. At least one of the two events will not occur (not A or nor B)
P(A′ ∪ B′ ) = 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
1 1
Illustration : If the probability of solving a problem by 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 3 and 2 respectively and the probability
1
of solving the problem by both 𝐴 and 𝐵 is 4 then
1 1 1 7
𝑃(either one of them will solve the problem) = 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 3 + 2 − 4 = 12
1 1 1
𝑃(only 𝐴 will solve the problem) = 𝑃(𝐴) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 3 − 4 = 12
1 1 1
𝑃(only 𝐵 will solve the problem) = 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 2 − 4 = 4
1 1 1 1
𝑃(exactly one of them will solve the problem) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 2𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 3 + 2 − 2 (4) = 3
1 3
𝑃(atleast one of them will solve the problem) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 1 − 4 = 4
a
The probability of odds in favour of a ∶ b = a+b

b
The probability of odds against of a ∶ b = a+b

For example,
7 7
If the odds in favour of 𝐴 solving a problem are 7 to 5 then probability that 𝐴 solves the problem = 7+5 = 12
3 3
If the odds against 𝐵 solving a problem are 4 to 3 then probability that 𝐵 solves the problem = 3+4 = 7