COMPLEX VARIABLES

Mathematical Analysis
Mathematics (E)

Dr. Doaa M. Radi

 Limits
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be defined and single-valued in a neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 with the
possible exception of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 itself (i.e., in a deleted 𝛿 neighborhood of 𝑧0 ). We say
that the number 𝑙 is the limit of 𝑓(𝑧) as z approaches 𝑧0
and write lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑙 if for any positive number 𝜖 (however small), we can find
𝑧→𝑧0
some positive number 𝛿 (usually depending on 𝜖 ) such that 𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑙 < 𝜖
whenever 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝛿.
In such a case, we also say that 𝑓(𝑧) approaches 𝑙 as 𝑧 approaches 𝑧0 and write as
𝑓 𝑧 → 𝑙 as 𝑧 → 𝑧0 . The limit must be independent of the manner in which 𝑧
approaches 𝑧0 .
Geometrically, if 𝑧0 is a point in the complex plane, then lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑙 if the
𝑧→𝑧0
difference in absolute value between 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑙 can be made as small as we wish
by choosing points z sufficiently close to 𝑧0 (excluding 𝑧 = 𝑧0 itself).
 𝑖 𝑖𝑧
Example 1: Prove that lim 𝑓 𝑧 = , where 𝑓 𝑧 = .
𝑧→1 2 2
Solution:
For each 𝜖 > 0 there exist 𝛿 > 0 such that
𝑖
𝑓 𝑧 − <𝜖 when 𝑧−1 <𝛿
2
𝑖𝑧 𝑖
− <𝜖
2 2
𝑖
𝑧−1 <𝜖
2
1
𝑧−1 <𝜖
2
𝑧 − 1 < 2𝜖 when 𝑧−1 <𝛿
∴ 𝛿 = 2𝜖
i.e. 𝛿 depends on 𝜖.
Example 2: Evaluate each of the following limits:
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒛𝟐 − 𝟓𝒛 + 𝟏𝟎
𝒛→𝟏+𝒊

lim 𝑧 2 − 5𝑧 + 10 = 1 + 𝑖 2
− 5 1 + 𝑖 + 10
𝑧→1+𝑖
= 1 + 2𝑖 − 1 − 5 − 5𝑖 + 10 = 5 − 3𝑖

(2𝑧+3)(𝑧−1)
2. lim 2 −2𝑧+4 .
𝑧→−2𝑖 𝑧

(2𝑧 + 3)(𝑧 − 1) (−4𝑖 + 3)(−2𝑖 − 1) −8 + 4𝑖 − 6𝑖 − 3

lim = =
𝑧→−2𝑖 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 4 −4 + 4𝑖 + 4 4𝑖
11 − 2𝑖 −4𝑖 1 11
= × = − + 𝑖.
4𝑖 −4𝑖 2 4
 𝑖𝑧 3 −1
3. lim .
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧−𝑖

𝑖𝑧 3 − 1 𝑖𝑧 3 − 𝑖 4 𝑖(𝑧 3 − 𝑖 3 ) 𝑖(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 2 + 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑖 2 )

lim = lim = lim = lim
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 𝑧−𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 𝑧−𝑖

= 𝑖 lim 𝑧 2 + 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑖 2 = 3𝑖 3 = −3𝑖.
𝑧→𝑖

𝑧 3 −𝑖
4. lim
𝑧−𝑖
.
𝑧→−𝑖

𝑧 2 +1
5. lim
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧−𝑖

𝑧2 + 1 𝑧 2 − (−1) 𝑧2 − 𝑖2 (𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 𝑖)
lim = lim = lim = lim = lim 𝑧 + 𝑖 = 2𝑖
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 𝑧−𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 𝑧−𝑖 𝑧→𝑖
Example 3: Prove that lim 𝑧Τҧ 𝑧 does not exist.
𝑧→0

Solution:
If 𝑧 → 0 along x-axis ∴𝑦=0
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, ∴𝑧=𝑥
𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦, ∴ 𝑧ҧ = 𝑥
𝑥
∴ lim = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥
If 𝑧 → 0 along y-axis ∴𝑥=0
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, ∴ 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦
𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦, ∴ 𝑧ҧ = −𝑖𝑦
−𝑖𝑦
∴ lim = −1
𝑦→0 𝑖𝑦

∴ lim 𝑧Τ
ҧ
𝑧 does not exist.
𝑧→0
 Continuity
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be defined and single-valued in a neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 as well as at
𝑧 = 𝑧0 (i.e., in a 𝛿 neighborhood of 𝑧0 ). The function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be

continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 if lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧0 ). Note that this implies three conditions

𝑧→𝑧0

that must be met in order that 𝑓(𝑧) be continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 :

1. 𝒇(𝒛𝟎 ). must exist, i.e., 𝒇(𝒛) is defined at 𝐳𝟎 .

2. 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒍 must exist.

𝒛→𝒛𝟎

3. 𝒍 = 𝒇(𝒛𝟎 ).
Example: Discuss the continuity of the function

𝑧2, 𝑧≠𝑖
𝑓 𝑧 =ቊ
0, 𝑧=𝑖

Solution:
1. 𝑓 𝑧 = 0, 𝑓(𝑧) is defined

2. lim 𝑓 𝑧 = lim 𝑧 2 = −1, lim 𝑓 𝑧 exists.

𝑧→𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 𝑧→𝑧0

3. 𝑓 𝑖 ≠ lim 𝑓 𝑧 .
𝑧→𝑖
𝑓 𝑧 is not continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑖.
THEOREM . If w = 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous in a region, then the real and imaginary
parts of 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑢, 𝑣 are also continuous in the region.

Example: Discuss the continuity of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧.ҧ

Solution:
If z = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then 𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 ∴ 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 ∴ 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧ҧ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠.
 1 𝑧
Example: Discuss the continuity of 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧
.

Solution:
𝑧
1
𝑓 𝑧 = 1+ = 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
𝑧

= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦)
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 is polynomial ∴ 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) is continuous
𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 is polynomial ∴ 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is continuous
1 𝑧
∴𝑓 𝑧 = 1+ is continuous.
𝑧
Example: Prove that 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 is continuous at the point 𝑧 = 𝑖.
Solution:
1. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑖 2 = −1,
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) is defined

2. lim 𝑓 𝑧 = lim 𝑧 2 = −1,

𝑧→𝑖 𝑧→𝑖

∴ lim 𝑓 𝑧 exists.
𝑧→𝑧0

3. 𝑓 𝑖 = lim 𝑓 𝑧 = −1.
𝑧→𝑖
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑖.
Example: Find all values of z at which the following function is continuous:
𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 = 2 .
𝑧 +1
Solution:
To find zeros of denominator ..
𝑧 2 + 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑧 = ±1
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) is not defined at 𝑧 = ±1
⟹ 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at all values of z except 𝑧 = ±1
i.e. 𝑓(𝑧) is not continuous at 𝑧 = ±1