SECTION 1.

2 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS USING

PROPERTIES OF LIMITS: OBJECTIVES
Find the limit of a sum, a difference, and a product
Find the limit of a power and the limit of a root
Find the limit of a polynomial
Find the limit of a quotient
Find the limit of an average rate of change
Find the limit of a difference quotient
 6.
6.
lim g ( x) 3
3
3 g ( x ) 
x →−lim
x →−3
THE LIMIT OF A CONSTANT
= –27
= –27

THEOREM
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐴, where 𝐴 is a constant, then
for any real number 𝑐,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝐴 = 𝐴
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example: lim 15 = 15
𝑥→3
THE LIMIT OF THE IDENTITY FUNCTION

THEOREM
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, then for any real number 𝑐,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example: lim 𝑥 = 4
𝑥→4
 THE LIMIT OF A SUM

THEOREM Limit of a Sum

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions for which lim 𝑓(𝑥) and
𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑔(𝑥) both exist, then lim [𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 ] exists and
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim [𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 ] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

IN WORDS: The limit of the sum of the two functions

equals the sum of their limits.
 LIMIT OF SUM EXAMPLE

Find lim (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→−2

Solution: 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 is the sum of two functions: 𝑓 𝑥 =

𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 1.
From the constant and identity function limits we have
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = −2 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 1 = 1
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

Then, using the limit of a sum, we have

lim (𝑥 + 1) = lim 𝑥 + lim 1 = −2 + 1 = −1
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
 THE LIMIT OF A DIFFERENCE

THEOREM Limit of a Difference

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions for which lim 𝑓(𝑥) and
𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑔(𝑥) both exist, then lim [𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 ] exists and
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim [𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 ] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

IN WORDS: The limit of the difference of the two functions

equals the difference of their limits.
 LIMIT OF A DIFFERENCE EXAMPLE

Find lim (5 − 𝑥).

𝑥→3

Solution: 𝐹 𝑥 = 5 − 𝑥 is the difference of two functions

𝑓 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥.
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 5 = 5 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = 3
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

Then, using the limit of a difference, we have

lim 5 − 𝑥 = lim 5 − lim 𝑥 = 5 − 3 = 2
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
 THE LIMIT OF A PRODUCT

THEOREM Limit of a Product

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions for which lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
both exist, then lim [𝑓 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑔 𝑥 ] exists and
𝑥→𝑐
lim [𝑓 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑔 𝑥 ] = lim 𝑓 𝑥 ⋅ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
FINDING A LIMIT OF A PRODUCT EXAMPLE

Find lim 4𝑥(𝑥 + 3) .

𝑥→2

Solution:

lim 4𝑥(𝑥 + 3) = lim (4𝑥) ⋅ lim 𝑥 + 3

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= 4 ⋅ lim 𝑥 ⋅ lim 𝑥 + lim 3

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= 4 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 + 3 = 40
 LIMIT OF A POWER

Remark:
Limit of a Power
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists and if 𝑛 is a positive integer, then
𝑥→𝑐
𝑛
𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT OF A POWER EXAMPLES

Find lim 𝑥 4 .
𝑥→2
4
Solution: lim 𝑥 4 = lim 𝑥 = 24 = 16
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Find lim 2𝑥 − 1 2 .
𝑥→3

Solution:
2 2
2 3
lim 2𝑥 − 1 = lim (2𝑥 − 1) = lim (2𝑥) − lim 1 = 6−1 = 125
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
 LIMIT OF A ROOT

THEOREM Limit of a Root

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists and if 𝑛 ≥ 2 is an integer, then
𝑥→𝑐
𝑛 𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑥 𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT OF A ROOT EXAMPLE
3
Find lim 𝑥 2 + 18.
𝑥→3

Solution:
3 3 3
lim 𝑥 2 + 18 = lim (𝑥 2 +18) = lim 𝑥 2 + lim 18
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

3 3
= 32 + 18 = 27 = 3
 LIMIT OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

THEOREM Limit of a Polynomial Function

If 𝑃 is a polynomial function, then
lim 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑃(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐

for any number 𝑐.

 LIMIT OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
EXAMPLES
Find the limit of each polynomial.
(a) lim 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4 = 3 ⋅ 22 −2 ⋅ 2 + 4 = 12
𝑥→2

(b) lim 5𝑥 7 + 2𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 = 5 −1 7 + 2 −1 4 − 3 −1 2 = −6
𝑥→−1

(c) lim 8𝑥 10 − 7𝑥 6 + 3𝑥 5 + 3 = 8 ⋅ 010 − 7 ⋅ 06 + 3 ⋅ 05 + 3 = 3

𝑥→0
 LIMIT OF A QUOTIENT

THEOREM Limit of a Quotient

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions for which lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)
both exist, then lim exists and
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥)
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐
lim =
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐

provided lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.

𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT OF A RATIONAL FUNCTION

Remark:
If the number 𝑐 is in the domain of a rational function
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑅 𝑥 = , then
𝑞(𝑥)

lim 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑅(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT OF RATIONAL FUNCTION
EXAMPLES
Find:
4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥−1
(a) lim
𝑥→2 3𝑥 2 + 1

4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1
Since 2 is in the domain of the rational function 𝑅 𝑥 =
3𝑥 2 + 1
16 − 4 − 1 11
lim 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑅 2 = =
𝑥→2 12 + 1 13
2𝑥 + 2
(b) lim
𝑥→−1 3𝑥 2 − 1
2𝑥 + 2
Since −1 is in the domain of the rational function 𝐻 𝑥 =
3𝑥 2 − 1
−2 + 2 0
lim 𝐻(𝑥) = 𝐻 −1 = = =0
𝑥→−1 3 − 1 2
 LIMITS USING FACTORING EXAMPLE
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 0
Find lim indeterminate form
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 − 4 0

Solution: Since 2 is not in the domain of the rational function, we

cannot use substitution. Instead we try factoring.
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2)
2 =
𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)

Since 𝑥 ≠ 2, and we are interested in the limit as 𝑥 approaches 2, the

factor 𝑥 − 2 can be divided out.
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 3 2 − 3 1
lim 2 = lim = lim = =−
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 4 𝑥→2 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥→2 𝑥 + 2 2 + 2 4
 LIMITS USING RATIONALIZING
EXAMPLE
𝑥− 3 0
Find lim . indeterminate form
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 0

𝑥− 3
Solution: The domain of ℎ 𝑥 = is {𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑥 ≠ 3}. Since the limit of
𝑥−3
the denominator is lim (𝑥 − 3) = 0, we cannot just use the limit of a quotient.
𝑥→3
We rationalize the numerator instead.
𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 3 1
= ⋅ = =
𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3 (𝑥 − 3)( 𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 + 3
Since the 𝑥 − 3 term can be divided out, then
𝑥 − 3 1 lim 1 1 1 3
𝑥→3
lim = lim = = = =
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 𝑥→3 𝑥 + 3 lim ( 𝑥 + 3) 3 + 3 2 3 6
𝑥→3
 LIMIT OF A DIFFERENCE QUOTIENT 1

Example :
Find the limit as ℎ approaches 0 of the difference quotient
𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
,ℎ ≠ 0 of 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1.
ℎ

Solution:
𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ = 3(𝑥 + ℎ)2 −2 𝑥 + ℎ + 1 = 3 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 − 2𝑥 − 2ℎ + 1
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 − 2𝑥 − 2ℎ + 1
𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 − 2𝑥 − 2ℎ + 1 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
= 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2
 LIMIT OF A DIFFERENCE QUOTIENT 2

So, the difference quotient is

𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥) 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 − 2ℎ ℎ(6𝑥 + 3ℎ − 2)
= = = 6𝑥 + 3ℎ − 2
ℎ ℎ ℎ

Finally,
𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
lim = lim (6𝑥 + 3ℎ − 2) = 6𝑥 + 3 ⋅ 0 − 2 = 6𝑥 − 2
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
SECTION 1.3 CONTINUITY: OBJECTIVES

Determine whether a function is continuous at a number

Determine intervals on which a function is continuous
Use properties of continuity
Use the Intermediate Value Theorem
IS A FUNCTION CONTINUOUS AT A
NUMBER? (1 of 2)
IS A FUNCTION CONTINUOUS AT A
NUMBER? (2 of 2)
 CONTINUITY AT A NUMBER

DEFINITION Continuity at a Number

A function 𝑓 is continuous at a number 𝑐 if the following three
conditions are met:
• 𝑓(𝑐) is defined (that is, 𝑐 is in the domain of 𝑓)
• lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists
𝑥→𝑐
• lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐

If a function 𝑓 is defined on an open interval containing 𝑐,

except possibly at 𝑐, then the function is discontinuous at 𝑐,
whenever any one of the above three conditions is NOT
satisfied.
 DETERMINE WHETHER A FUNCTION IS
CONTINUOUS AT A NUMBER EXAMPLE 1
Example 1: Determine whether
𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 is continuous at 1.

Solution: First, 1 is in the domain of 𝑓

and 𝑓 1 = 3.

Second,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 3, so
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists.
𝑥→1

Third, lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(1) .

𝑥→1

Since the three conditions are met, 𝑓 is

continuous at 1.
 DETERMINE WHETHER A FUNCTION IS
CONTINUOUS AT A NUMBER EXAMPLE 2
𝑥2 + 4
Example 2: Determine whether g 𝑥 = is continuous at
𝑥2 − 9
3.
Solution: Since 3 is not in the domain of 𝑔, the function 𝑔 is
discontinuous at 3.
 DETERMINE WHETHER A FUNCTION IS
CONTINUOUS AT A NUMBER EXAMPLE 3
𝑥2 + 3
Example 3: Determine whether 𝑓 𝑥 = is continuous at the
𝑥2 − 9
numbers −3, 0, and 3.

Solution: The domain of 𝑓 is {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ −3, 𝑥 ≠ 3}. Since 𝑓 is not defined

at −3 and 3, the function 𝑓 is not continuous at −3 and 3.

The number 0 is in the domain of 𝑓. So, 𝑓 is defined at 0 and 𝑓 0 =

3
− .
9

lim 𝑥 2 + 3
𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥→0 0 + 3 3
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 2 = = =− = 𝑓(0)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 − 9 lim 𝑥 2 − 9 0 − 9 9
𝑥→0

The three conditions of continuity at a number are met. So, the

function 𝑓 is continuous at 0.
 TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES
Let 𝑓 be a function that is defined everywhere in an open
interval containing 𝑐, except possibly at 𝑐.
DEFINITION Removable Discontinuity
The number 𝑐 is called a removable discontinuity of 𝑓 if the
function is discontinuous at 𝑐 but the lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists. The
𝑥→𝑐
discontinuity is removed by defining (or redefining) the value of
𝑓 at 𝑐 to be lim 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥→𝑐

DEFINITION Jump Discontinuity

The number 𝑐 is called a jump discontinuity of 𝑓 if the
lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 and lim− 𝑓 𝑥 exists but lim− 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
 CONTINUITY ON AN INTERVAL

DEFINITION Continuity on an Interval

• A function 𝑓 is continuous on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) if 𝑓 is
continuous at every number in (𝑎, 𝑏).
• A function 𝑓 is continuous on an interval [𝑎, 𝑏) if 𝑓 is
continuous on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) and continuous from
the right at the number 𝑎.
• A function 𝑓 is continuous on an interval (𝑎, 𝑏] if 𝑓 is
continuous on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) and continuous from
the left at the number 𝑏.
• A function 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if 𝑓
is continuous on the open interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , continuous from
the right at 𝑎, and continuous from the left at 𝑏.
EXAMPLES OF CONTINUITY ON AN INTERVAL
 DETERMINE WHERE A FUNCTION IS
CONTINUOUS
𝑥3
Determine where the function 𝑓 𝑥 = is continuous.
𝑥−2

𝑥3
Solution: The domain of 𝑓 𝑥 = is the set {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 2}, which
𝑥−2
is the same as the set −∞, 2 ∪ 2, ∞ . Since 𝑓 is not defined
at 2, 𝑓 is discontinuous at 2.
For all numbers 𝑐 in the open interval (−∞, 2) we have
𝑐3
𝑓 𝑐 = and lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑐). So, 𝑓 is continuous in the
𝑐−2 𝑥→𝑐
open interval (−∞, 2). Similarly, 𝑓 is continuous in the open
interval (2, ∞).
So, the function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on −∞, 2 ∪ (2, ∞).
 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUITY

THEOREM Continuity of a Sum, Difference, Product and

Quotient

If the functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous at a number 𝑐, and

if 𝑘 is a real number, then the functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔,
and 𝑘𝑓 are also continuous at 𝑐. If 𝑔 𝑐 ≠ 0, the function
𝑓
is continuous at 𝑐.
𝑔
 IDENTIFYING WHERE FUNCTIONS ARE
CONTINUOUS
𝑥
Example 4: a) Determine where 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3 − 2 is
𝑥 +9
continuous for all real numbers.
Solution: 𝐹 is the difference of the two functions 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3 and
𝑥
𝑔 𝑥 = 2 , each of which is continuous for all real numbers. The
𝑥 +9
function 𝐹 = 𝑓 − 𝑔 is also continuous for all real numbers.
𝑥+2
b) Determine where 𝐺 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 + 2 is
𝑥 −9
continuous for all real numbers.
Solution: 𝐺 is the sum of the two function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥, which is
𝑥+2
continuous for all real numbers, and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 , which is
𝑥 −9
continuous for {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ −3, 𝑥 ≠ 3}. Since 𝐺 = 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝐺 is continuous for
𝑥 𝑥 ≠ −3, 𝑥 ≠ 3 .
 CONTINUITY OF COMPOSITE
FUNCTIONS
THEOREM Continuity of a Composite Function

If a function 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐 and a function 𝑓 is continuous at

𝑔(𝑐), then the composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 ) is continuous
at 𝑐. That is,

lim (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑐 )

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Determine where the function 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4 is continuous.

𝐹 is the composite of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4; 𝑓 is continuous

for 𝑥 ≥ 0; and 𝑔 is continuous for all real numbers. The function 𝐹 =
𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4 is continuous for 𝑥 2 − 4 ≥ 0, the set
𝑥 𝑥 ≤ −2 ∪ 𝑥 𝑥 ≥ 2 .
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

THEOREM The Intermediate Value Theorem

Let 𝑓 be a function that is continuous on a closed interval
[𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 𝑓(𝑏). If 𝑁 is any number between 𝑓(𝑎)
and 𝑓 𝑏 , then there is at least one number 𝑐 in the open
interval (𝑎, 𝑏) for which 𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑁.
In other words, a function 𝑓 that is continuous on a closed
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] with 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 𝑓(𝑏), must take on all values
between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏).
 USING THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE
THEOREM
Example 5: Use the Intermediate
Value Theorem to show that
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 has a zero
between 1 and 2.
Solution: Since 𝑓 is a polynomial, it is
continuous on the closed interval
[1,2]. Because 𝑓 1 = −2 and
𝑓 2 = 4 have opposite signs, the
Intermediate Value Theorem states
that 𝑓 𝑐 = 0 for at least one number
𝑐 in the interval (1,2). That is, 𝑓 has
at least one zero between 1 and 2.