Lecture 6: Particle Physics

In this last lecture of the module we hope to convey some of the flavour of elementary particle physics – the
physics of leptons, quarks, gauge bosons, and the Higgs boson.
(Other particles are composites, made from these elementary particles.)

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 44
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 14
http://pdg.lbl.gov/index.html 1
Introduction

Collision events* recorded by ATLAS (left) and CMS (right) showing characteristics of a Higgs produced in proton-proton
collisions at 13 TeV (Image: left – ATLAS/CERN, right – Tom McCauley/CMS/CERN 2018)

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 44, Sections 1 & 5
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 14, Sections 1, 2 & 6

2
Early discoveries

o End of the 19th century. The characteristic spectra of elements suggested that atoms are
not indivisible – they have internal structure.
o 1897. J. J. Thomson measured the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron 𝑒 − and showed
that all atoms contain electrons – negatively charged subatomic particles.
o 1905. A. Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect defined the photon 𝛾 – a spin-1
particle having zero rest mass and zero charge.
o 1905 Einstein’s theory of special relativity
o 1911. E. Rutherford’s experiments revealed that an atom’s positive charge resides in a
small, dense nucleus.
o 1912. V. F. Hess discovered cosmic rays by detecting them at high altitudes during
balloon flights. These highly energetic particles (mostly protons) cross interstellar space
and enter Earth’s atmosphere, where their interaction with particles create cosmic
showers of many distinct particles. They contain the highest particle energies ever
observed (up to 109 TeV), although they normally are in the 10−3 TeV range.
3
Early discoveries (cont.)

o 28 Jul 1914 – 11 Nov 1918 World War I

o 1915 Einstein’s theory of general relativity
o 1919. E. Rutherford fired 𝛼 particles into nitrogen:
4 14 1 17
2He + 7 N → 1H + 8O.
He showed that the proton 𝑝 (hydrogen nucleus) is a constituent of the nuclei of heavier
atoms and a collision with a fast-moving 𝛼 particle can dislodge one of those protons.
o 1925 – 1927 Quantum mechanics
o 1932. In 1930 W. Bothe and H. Becker observed that when beryllium, boron, or lithium
was bombarded by 𝛼 particles, the target material emitted a radiation that had much
greater penetrating power than the original 𝛼 particles. Further experiments by J.
Chadwick in 1932 showed that the emitted particles were neutrons 𝑛 – electrically
neutral, with mass approximately equal to that of the proton. For example:
4
2He + 49Be → 10𝑛 + 126C.
4
Early discoveries (cont.)

o 1932. In 1932 C. D.
Anderson identified the
positron 𝑒 + (Dirac,
1928) in cosmic rays,
by observing the paths
of cosmic ray
showers passing
through a cloud
chamber placed in a
magnetic field.

o 1936. C. D. Anderson and collaborators

observed the muons in cosmic radiation.
5
Early discoveries (cont.)

o 1 Sep 1939 – 2 Sep 1945 World War II

o 1947. The pions or 𝝅-mesons (or Yukawa mesons, 1935)
was identified in 1947 by C. F. Powell and G. P. Occhialini.
o 1955. The antiproton 𝑝ҧ was found by Emilio Gino Segrè and
Owen Chamberlain in 1955, when proton-antiproton 𝑝𝑝ҧ pairs
were created by use of a beam of 6 𝐺𝑒𝑉 protons from the
Bevatron at UC Berkeley in the reaction.

𝑝 + 𝑝 → 𝑝 + 𝑝 + 𝑝 + 𝑝ҧ

o 1956. The antineutron 𝑛ത was found by Bruce Cork soon

afterward, at the Bevatron, UC Berkeley.

o 9 August 1965, Singapore independence

6
The Standard Model – a theory of quantum fields

o The Standard Model, which was

developed in the 1960s and 1970s, is the
most widely accepted theory of
elementary particle physics at present.
o It is a “simple”, comprehensive theory
that explains hundreds of particles and
complex interactions with six leptons, six
quarks, force-mediating gauge bosons,
and the Higgs boson.
o The leptons and quarks can be divided
into three generations – each generation
consists of two leptons and two quarks.
o 2nd- and 3rd-generation particles are
unstable and decay into 1st-generation particles. 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
7
The Standard Model (cont.)

o Most of the known mass in the universe is

made from components in the 1st
generation.
o The 2nd generation consists of the muon,
its neutrino, and the charm and strange
quarks. Members of this generation are
produced in high-energy accelerators, and
are found in cosmic rays and in certain
astrophysical objects of high energy.
o The 3rd generation consists of the tau, its
neutrino, and the bottom and top quarks.
Members of this generation existed in the
early moments of the creation of the
universe. They can be created with very high energy accelerators.
8
The Standard Model (cont.)

o The Standard Model is a combination of

the electroweak theory and quantum
chromodynamics (QCD), but does not
include gravity.
o The gauge bosons mediate 3 of the 4
fundamental forces of nature: photons are
responsible for the electromagnetic
interaction, 𝑊 ± (mass 80.4 GeVΤ𝑐 2 )
and 𝑍 (mass 91.2 GeVΤ𝑐 2 ) for the weak
interaction, gluons for the strong
interaction.
o For example, the 𝑊 −
mediates the 𝛽 − decay
of a neutron:
9
The Standard Model (cont.)

o The massive spin-1 bosons, 𝑊 ± and 𝑍,

were first observed at CERN in 1983.
o The top quark was observed at CDF and
D0, Fermilab in 1995. 1968 1974
o The tau neutrino was observed at
DONUT, Fermilab in 2000.
o … 1968 1968 1977

1897 1936 1975

1956 1962

François Englert Peter W. Higgs 10

The Standard Model (cont.)

o The Nobel Prize in Physics 2013 was

awarded jointly to François Englert and
Peter W. Higgs for the theoretical
discovery of a mechanism that contributes 1968 1974
to our understanding of the origin of mass
of subatomic particles, and which recently
was confirmed through the discovery of 1968 1968 1977
the predicted fundamental particle (the
Higgs boson), by the ATLAS and CMS
experiments at CERN's Large Hadron 1897 1936 1975

Collider.
o To date no one has ever clearly observed a
free quark or gluon – confinement. 1956 1962

11
The Standard Model (cont.)

Remark.
It has been postulated that in a theory of
quantum gravity, the graviton (a spin-2,
massless particle that travels at the speed of
light) interacts with all particles that have
energy-mass and is responsible for the
gravitational interaction, i.e., it is the
mediator of gravity. In summary, then:

12
Classification of particles and conservation laws –
a first step to understanding the particle “zoo”

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 44, Sections 3 & 5
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 14, Section 3

13
Fermions and bosons

o Particles with half-integral spin are fermions and those with integral spin are bosons.
o All stable matter in the universe appears to be composed, at some level, of constituent
fermions (leptons and quarks). For example, atoms are composed of electrons, protons
and neutrons.
o Fermions exert attractive or repulsive forces on each other by exchanging gauge bosons,
which are the force carriers.
o Photons, the 𝑊 ± and 𝑍, and gluons are gauge bosons responsible for the electroweak
and strong interactions. (Gravitons are also bosons, having spin 2.) For example,
𝑒− 𝑒−

𝑒− 𝑒− 14
Four fundamental interactions

15
Gauge bosons, Higgs boson, and graviton

decays
125 GeVΤ𝑐 2

Remark – the Higgs boson.

The Higgs boson is associated with the Higgs field that permeates space. By interacting
with this field, particles acquire mass. Particles that interact strongly with the Higgs field
have heavy mass; particles that interact weakly have small mass.

16
Leptons

o There are 6 leptons (plus their 6 antiparticles), all spin-½ fermions:

Each of the leptons has an associated neutrino with little mass and zero charge, named
after its charged partner. For example, the electron and electron neutrino.
o Leptons seem to be truly elementary – they are point-like, with no apparent internal
structure. There has been no plausible suggestion they are formed from some more
fundamental particles thus far. 17
Leptons (cont.)

o The muon decays into an electron via the weak interaction:

𝜈𝜇
𝜇−
𝜇− → 𝜈𝜇 + 𝑒 − + 𝜈𝑒ҧ
𝑊− 𝑒−

𝜈𝑒ҧ
o The tau can decay into an electron or a muon approximately 35% of the time
𝜈𝜏
𝜏−
𝜏 − → 𝜈𝜏 + 𝑒 − + 𝜈𝑒ҧ 𝜏 − → 𝜈𝜏 + 𝜇− + 𝜈𝜇ҧ
𝑊− 𝑒 − 𝑜𝑟 𝜇−

𝜈𝑒ҧ 𝑜𝑟 𝜈𝜇ҧ 18
Leptons (cont.)

o About 65% of the time the tau can decay into hadrons:
𝜈𝜏
𝜏−

𝑊− 𝑑

𝑢ത
o Leptons do not experience the strong force.

o Leptons interacts via weak and electromagnetic forces only

19
Lepton number conservation

o Corresponding to the three pairs of leptons are three lepton numbers, 𝐿𝑒 , 𝐿𝜇 , 𝐿𝜏

o Let 𝐿𝑒 = +1 for the electron and the electron neutrino, 𝐿𝑒 = −1 for their antiparticles,
and 𝐿𝑒 = 0 for all other particles. In a similar way we can introduce quantum numbers
𝐿𝜇 for the muon and its neutrino, and 𝐿𝜏 for the tau and its neutrino.

o There is a conservation of leptons number for each of the three families (kinds) of
leptons: the net lepton number from each family is the same both before and after a
reaction. That is, we have three conservation laws, one each for 𝐿𝑒 , 𝐿𝜇 , and 𝐿𝜏 .

o These are obeyed in most decays and reactions. E.g., 𝜇ด− → 𝜈ณ𝜇 + 𝑒ด
−
+ 𝜈ณ𝑒ҧ .
𝐿𝜇 =1 𝐿𝜇 =1 𝐿𝑒 =1 𝐿𝑒 =−1

20
Lepton conservation (cont.)

o The Nobel Prize in Physics 2015 was awarded jointly to Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B.
McDonald for the discovery of neutrino oscillations, which shows that neutrinos have
mass.
o A neutrino created with a specific lepton flavour (electron, muon, or tau) can later be
measured to have a different flavour.
o Neutrino oscillations thus is the only process that violates the conservation of leptons
within individual families.
o The total lepton number,
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒 + 𝐿𝜇 + 𝐿𝜏
is still conserved – except perhaps at very high temperatures at the beginning of the universe
(i.e., leptogenesis). For example,
ณ
𝑛 → ณ 𝑝 + 𝑒ด − + 𝜈ҧ
ณ𝑒 , 𝑠𝑜 𝐿𝑒 = 1 − 1 + 0 + 0 = 0.
𝐿𝑒 =0 𝐿𝑒 =0 𝐿𝑒 =1 𝐿𝑒 =−1
21
Lepton conservation (cont.)

More examples of lepton number conservation

𝜇ด+ → 𝑒ด
+ + 𝜈 + 𝜈ҧ
ณ𝑒 ณ𝜇 , 𝑠𝑜 𝐿𝑒 : 0 = −1 + 1 + 0 , 𝐿𝜇 : −1 = 0 + 0 − 1
𝐿𝑒 =0 𝐿𝑒 =−1 𝐿𝑒 =1 𝐿𝑒 =0
𝐿𝜇 =−1 𝐿𝜇 =0 𝐿𝜇 =0 𝐿𝜇 =−1

𝜋ด− → 𝜇ด− + 𝜈ด
𝜇𝑒 , , 𝑠𝑜 𝐿𝑒 : 0 = 0 + 0 , 𝐿𝜇 : 0 = 1 − 1
𝐿𝑒 =0 𝐿𝑒 =0 𝐿𝑒 =0
𝐿𝜇 =0 𝐿𝜇 =1 𝐿𝜇 =−1

Etc.

22
Hadrons

o Hadrons are particles that interact via the strong force.

o There are two classes of hadrons: mesons and baryons.

o Mesons are particles with integral spin, i.e., they are bosons.
o Mesons are routinely produced in cosmic radiation and in nuclear and particle
physics experiments. They are unstable and not abundant in nature. For example,
𝜋 + → 𝜇+ + 𝜈𝜇 𝜋 − → 𝜇− + 𝜈𝜇ҧ 𝜋0 → 𝛾 + 𝛾

o All baryons have half-integral spins, i.e., they are fermions, and have masses at least
as large as the proton.
o All baryons, except the proton, eventually decay into protons – the proton is the only
“stable” baryon.
o Each hadron has an antiparticle. For example, the antiproton 𝑝ҧ is the antiparticle of
the proton 𝑝.
23
Hadrons – some mesons

24
Hadrons – some baryons

3
2

25
Baryon conservation

o Assign the baryon number 𝐵 that has the value 𝐵 = +1 for baryons, 𝐵 = −1 for
antibaryons, and 𝐵 = 0 for all other particles.
o The conservation of baryon number requires the same total baryon number before
and after the reaction.
o There are no known violations of baryon conservation, however there are theoretical
indications that it was violated sometime in the beginning of the universe when
temperatures were quite high – baryogenesis. For example,
ณ
𝑛 → ณ 𝑝 + 𝑒ด − + 𝜈ҧ .
ณ𝑒
𝐵=1 𝐵=1 𝐵=0 𝐵=0
And,
𝑝 + ณ
ณ 𝑝 → ณ
𝑝 + ณ
𝑝 + ณ
𝑝 + ณ
𝑝ҧ .
𝐵=1 𝐵=1 𝐵=1 𝐵=1 𝐵=1 𝐵=−1
No fewer than 3 protons must be on the right side of the reaction in order to create the 1
antiproton – at least 4 particles must be produced in the reaction to create 1 antiproton.26
Strangeness

o The K mesons and the Λ and Σ hyperons were discovered during the late 1950s. Because
of their unusual behavior they were called strange particles.

o They were produced in the high energy collision, such as 𝜋 − + 𝑝. K-mesons and hyperons
were always produced together at the relatively high rate (suggesting strong interaction
process).

o However, they had had relatively long lifetime. (suggesting that decay was a weak
interaction process)
o To describe this behavior physicists introduced a new quantum number: strangeness

o The kaons have strangeness quantum number 𝑆 = +1, 𝚲 and 𝚺 hyperons both have
𝑆 = −1, the 𝚵 has 𝑆 = −2, and the 𝛀 has 𝑆 = −3. Their antiparticles all have the
opposite sign for the 𝑆 quantum number.
27
Strangeness

o Baryons having nonzero strangeness numbers are called hyperons.

o Strangeness is conserved in the strong and electromagnetic interactions, but not in

the weak interaction.

o For example, when the strange particles are produced by the 𝑝𝑝 strong interaction,
they must be produced in pairs to conserve strangeness:

ด+ + 𝐾
𝑝+𝑝 →𝑝+𝑝+ 𝐾 ด− .
𝑆=0 𝑆=0 𝑆=+1 𝑆=−1
o Other examples:
𝑝 + 𝜋− → 𝐾
ด+ + Σด− , 𝑝 + 𝜋− → 𝐾
ด0 + Λ
ด0 .
𝑆=0 𝑆=+1 𝑆=−1 𝑆=0 𝑆=+1 𝑆=−1

28
Strangeness (cont.)

A kaon and a hyperon are always produced together in high-energy collisions, say between a
proton and a pion. It is a strong interaction process where strangeness is conserved.

Only Δ𝑆 = 0, ±1 violations are allowed by the weak interaction.

o For example: the 𝐾 0 is the lightest 𝑆 = +1 particle, and there is no other strange particle
to which it can decay – it can decay only by the weak interaction, which violates
strangeness conservation.
o Examples of 𝐾 0 meson decays:

ด0
𝐾 𝜋ด+ + 𝜋ด− , ด0
𝐾 ด0 + 𝜋
𝜋 ด0
𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑆=+1 𝑆=0 𝑆=0 𝑆=+1 𝑆=0 𝑆=0
The typical decay times of the weak interaction are on the order of 10−10 s.
o This is in contrast to the very fast decay of the 𝜋 0 meson into two photons (10−16 s) via
the electromagnetic interaction.
29
Strangeness (cont.)

o Other examples:
ด0 → 𝑝 + 𝜋 − ,
Λ Σด+ → 𝑛 + 𝜋 + , ด− → 𝜋 + + 𝜋 − + 𝜋 − .
𝐾
𝑆=−1 𝑆=0 𝑆=−1 𝑆=0 𝑆=+1 𝑆=0

30
Symmetries and conservation laws

o Familiar symmetry operations, for example, translation or rotation of a system in space

lead to conservation of momentum and angular momentum.

o There are three discreet symmetry operators: parity (P), charge conjugation (C), and
time reversal (T).

o Parity (P) describes inversion symmetry of space, 𝑥 → −𝑥, 𝑦 → −𝑦, 𝑧 → −𝑧. If parity is
conserved, inversion does not change the laws of physics.

o It was discovered in 1956 by C.S. Wu that parity is not conserved in beta decays.

• Charge conjugation (C) reverses the sign of particle charge and magnetic moment. In
effect it replaces particle with anti-particle.
31
Symmetries and conservation laws

o It was believed that when both charge conjugation and parity operations are performed
(called CP), conservation was still valid
o In 1964 it was found that CP symmetry is violated in decay of 𝐾𝐿0 meson.

• Time reversal (T) invariance 𝑡 → −𝑡 , if true all laws of physics have the same form if
time goes backward.
• Time reversal (T) symmetry is can be violated as well

• There is currently a strong belief that all laws of physics are invariant under combined
CPT symmetry. No experimental evidence of CPT violation exists at present

32
Wu experiment, parity non-conservation, 1957

o Cobalt-60 nuclei decays radioactively via beta-

decay. Orient a bunch of such nuclei so that their
spins are in the same direction - say
counterclockwise when viewed from above. Count
the numbers of electrons emitted upward and
downward.

o Only if these numbers are equal will the "mirror"

experiment give the same result, for when viewed in
a mirror the distribution of rays is unchanged, but
the direction of spin is reversed.

o Experimentally, electrons have preferred emission

direction! Parity is not conserved.
33
https://home.cern/about/updates/2015/07/discovery-new-class-particles-lhc
https://home.cern/about/updates
Quarks and gluons /2018/04/humpty-dumpty-
particle-discovered

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 44, Section 4
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 14, Section 5

34
The quark theory

In 1964 Gell-Mann, and independently George Zweig, proposed that hadrons were made
from fractionally charged, spin-½ fermions called quarks (believed to be essentially
pointlike, just like leptons):

The quark theory is very successful in describing properties of the particles and in
understanding particle decay and reactions. 35
The quark theory (cont.)

Remarks.
o In 1967 Jerome Friedman, Henry Kendall, and Richard Taylor (Nobel Prize, 1990)
performed experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC) by scattering 20 GeV
electrons deep into protons. Their experiment was interpreted as evidence for pointlike
quarks inside the proton – they found a larger number of scattered electrons at backward
angles than would be expected if protons were uniform spheres of matter.
o The six different kinds of quarks are referred to as flavours, i.e., there are six flavours
of quarks: 𝑢, 𝑑, 𝑠, 𝑐, 𝑏, 𝑡.
o 1974. 𝐽Τ𝜓 meson or 𝑐𝑐ҧ and the charm quark.
o 1977. Υ meson or or 𝑏𝑏ത and the bottom quark.
o 1995. …

36
Motivation of quark theory, eightfold way, spin-0 mesons.

37
Motivation of quark theory, eightfold way, spin-½ baryons.

38
Motivation of quark theory, eightfold way, spin-3/2 baryons.

Eight fold way, 1961 by Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne’eman. In 1964, 𝛺− 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑. 𝐾 − collides
The absence of a particle in the bottom position was evidence of a new with a proton to produce 𝛺− plus 𝐾 0 and 𝐾 +
particle yet to be discovered, the 𝛺−
39
Quark description of particles

o A meson consists of a quark-antiquark pair, which gives the required

baryon number of zero.
o For example, a 𝜋 − meson consists of 𝑢ത 𝑑, which gives a charge of
2 1
− 𝑒 + − 𝑒 = −𝑒,
3 3
1 1
and the two spins couple to give − + = 0.
2 2
o Baryons consist of three quarks.
o For example, a proton is 𝑢𝑢𝑑, which gives a charge of
2 2 1
𝑒 + 𝑒 + − 𝑒 = 𝑒;
3 3 3
its baryon number is 1Τ3 + 1Τ3 + 1Τ3 = 1; and two of the quarks’ spins
couple to zero, leaving a spin ½ for the proton. 40
Quark description of particles (cont.)

o Another example, the quark composition of the Ω− , which has a strangeness of 𝑆 = −3, is
𝑠𝑠𝑠: its spin is due to three quark spins aligned, i.e.,
1 1 1 3
+ + = .
2 2 2 2
Its charge must be
1 1 1
− 𝑒 + − 𝑒 + − 𝑒 = −𝑒.
3 3 3
There is no other possibility for a stable Ω− (lifetime ≈ 10−10 s).
Remarks.
o Quarks are fermions and according to the Pauli exclusion principle, no two fermions
can exist in the same state.
o So 𝑠𝑠𝑠 is not possible unless some other quantum number distinguishes each of these
quarks in Ω− .
41
Quantum chromodynamics - colour

o Each flavour of quark comes in 3 colours: red (𝑅), green (𝐺), blue (𝐵). For example,
red up, green up, and blue up.
o The corresponding colours for antiquarks are antired (𝑅), ത antigreen (𝐺),ҧ antiblue (𝐵).
ത
o A colour and its anticolour cancel out.
o All hadrons are colourless or white – rules for combing the coloured quarks allow us to
represent all known hadrons.
o Analogous to electric charge for electromagnetic force, colour (or colour charge) is the
“charge” of the strong force (or colour force) between quarks.
o Quarks of different colours attract, whereas quarks of the same colour repel.
o In quantum chromodynamics, gluons are the massless, spin-1 bosons that hold the
quarks together. For example, the gluon is responsible for the attraction between quarks
that make up the nucleons, and the gluon is responsible for the attraction between the
quark and antiquark that make up the 𝜋-meson – the “mediator” of the strong nuclear
force between nucleons.
42
Quantum chromodynamics – colour (cont.)
o Using the 3 colours and 3 anticolours, there are 9 possible combinations of colour and
anticolour in gluons:
ത
𝐵𝐵, ത
𝐵𝑅, 𝐵𝐺,ҧ 𝑅𝐵,ത ത
𝑅𝑅, 𝑅𝐺,ҧ ത
𝐺 𝐵, ത
𝐺 𝑅, 𝐺 𝐺.ҧ
o Quarks change colour when they emit or absorb a gluon. For example,

Remarks.
ത +
o There are only eight independent gluons – eight colours of gluons (Combination of 𝑅𝑅
ҧ + 𝐵𝐵
𝐺𝐺 ത does not carry any colour and cannot be independent).
o Because each gluon carries a colour charge, gluons can interact with each other. In this
case gluons, as mediator of the strong force, are much different from photons,43 the
mediator of the electromagnetic force.
Confinement

o Physicists now believe that a free quark or gluon cannot be

observed – they are confined together by the strong force and
stay hidden within hadrons.
o The Nobel Prize in Physics 2004 was awarded jointly to David J.
Gross, H. David Politzer and Frank Wilczek for the discovery of
asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction.

David J. Gross H. David Politzer Frank Wilczek

44
Confinement (cont.)

Remarks.
o When a photon interacts at high energy with a neutron, a proton
and 𝜋 − -meson are the final result – a single quark will not escape.
o With enough energy several mesons may be produced, as long as
all the conservation laws and quark rules are observed.
o The colour force transmitted by the exchanged gluons increases as
the quarks get further apart.
o The restoring force increases as one of the quarks become
energetic, when the incident photon scatters from the neutron,
and tries to escape.
o If there is so much energy that the colour force can’t confine the
quarks within the neutron, then this extra energy will be able to
create a quark-antiquark pair, and a 𝜋 − -meson is created.
45
Beyond the Standard Model

The Standard Model has been so successful in particle physics that disagreements with its predictions now
make news, not its successes. However there are now enough “disagreements” with the Standard Model to
indicate that it is an approximation of a yet more fundamental theory.

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 44, Section 5
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 14, Section 7

46
Two clouds on the horizon, 1900
The beauty and clearness of the dynamical theory, which asserts
heat and light to be modes of motion, is at present obscured by
two clouds.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), 1900

• The inability to detect the luminous ether, specifically the failure of the
Michelson-Morley experiment
• Special relativity

• The black body radiation effect—known as the ultraviolet catastrophe

• Quantum physics

What are the clouds for modern physics?

47
Clouds on the horizon, 2019
We have a Standard model and the theory of General
relativity that describe most of the observed phenomena
very well. However few phenomena are still not
understood.

• Asymmetry between matter and antimatter:

The known universe consist of matter, not
antimatter. Standard model cannot explain it.

• Dark matter

• Dark energy

48
Hubble law

The speed of recession v of a galaxy is proportional to

its distance r from us

𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑟

Where 𝐻0 = 2.18 × 10−18 𝑠 −1 is a Hubble constant.

Our universe is expanding. If it was created in a Big

Bang, and the age of the universe can be estimated as

𝑟 1
𝑡= = = 4.59 × 1017 𝑠 = 14.5 × 109 year
𝑣 𝐻0
49
Critical density

In an expanding universe, gravitational attraction

between galaxies should slow. Lets consider our galaxy
of mass m. Its total energy is

1 2
𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 −
2 𝑅

If E>0, the universe will expand forever, if E<0, our

galaxy cannot escape.

The total mass inside the sphere is

4 3
𝑀 = 𝜋𝑅 𝜌𝑐
3
And velocity 𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑅
50
Critical density

Therefore critical density can be found from equation

1 2
𝐺𝑚 4 3
𝑚 𝐻0 𝑅 = 𝜋𝑅 𝜌𝑐
2 𝑅 3

It is equal to
3𝐻02
𝜌𝑐 = = 8.50 × 10−27 kg/m3
8𝜋𝐺

(About five Hydrogen atoms per cubic meter)

51
Dark matter
• One way to measure average density of matter do so is to count the number of galaxies in
a patch of sky. Based on the mass of an average star and the number of stars in an average
galaxy, this effort gives an estimate of the average density of luminous matter in the
universe—that is, matter that emits electromagnetic radiation.
Average density of all matter is 0.049 𝜌𝑐

• Another technique is to study the motions of galaxies within clusters of galaxies. The
speeds of these motions are related to the gravitational force exerted on each galaxy by the
other members of the cluster, which in turn depends on the total mass of the cluster. By
measuring these speeds, astronomers can determine the average density of all kinds of
matter within the cluster, whether or not the matter emits electromagnetic radiation.
Average density of all matter is 0.315 𝜌𝑐

Most of the matter in the universe is not luminous, nature of this dark matter is
unknown 52
 Dark energy
Average density of the matter in the universe is
below critical, 0.315 𝜌𝑐 . Universe will continue to expand
indefinitely, and gravitational attraction between matter in
different parts of the universe should slow the expansion
down with time.

Expansion must have been more rapid in the distant past.

To test it, we can examine the redshifts of extremely
distant objects.

This measurements show that the expansion has been

speeding up rather than slowing down.
A very distant galaxy ...
rather acts as a kind of “antigravity” that produces a universal repulsion.
... shown in close-upbut
This invisible, immaterial energy is called dark energy.
53
 Dark energy
Average density of the matter in the universe is
below critical, 0.315 𝜌𝑐 . Universe will continue to expand
indefinitely, and gravitational attraction between matter in
different parts of the universe should slow the expansion
down with time.

Expansion must have been more rapid in the distant past.

To test it, we can examine the redshifts of extremely
distant objects.

This measurements show that the expansion has been

speeding up rather than slowing down.
A very distant galaxy ...
rather acts as a kind of “antigravity” that produces a universal repulsion.
... shown in close-upbut
This invisible, immaterial energy is called dark energy.
54
Dark energy
Looks like space is filled with a kind of energy that has no
gravitational effect and emits no electromagnetic radiation
but rather acts as a kind of “antigravity” that produces a
universal repulsion. This invisible, immaterial energy is
called dark energy.

Energy density of dark energy is 0.685 𝜌𝑐 𝑐 2

Total energy density

0.685 𝜌𝑐 𝑐 2 + 0.315 𝜌𝑐 𝑐 2 = 1.00 𝜌𝑐 𝑐 2

Only about 5% of the matter is conventional matter that

we understand !!
55
 https://video.ias.edu/seiberg-2013

https://icecube.wisc.edu/
https://www.katrin.kit.edu/
http://www-numi.fnal.gov/index.html 56