Lesson 1.1.

The Big Bang Theory

Geocentric vs. Heliocentric Model

Definition of terms:

Geocentric Model- any theory of the structure of the solar system (or the universe) in
which Earth is assumed to be at the centre of it all.

Heliocentric Model- which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center
of the Universe. which the Sun is assumed to lie at or near a central point

• Early Greeks, like Aristotle and Ptolemy believed that the model of the universe
is geocentric. This model locates the Earth at its center but was debunked with
the discovery of telescope.

• Galileo discovered that the Earth is not the center of the universe and later on,
further studies by Nicolaus Copernicus believed the heliocentric theory, making
the Sun as the center.

George Lemaitre - Belgian Catholic Priest, theoretical physicist, mathematician, astronomer,

and professor of physics at the Catholic University of Louvain. He was the first to theorize that
the recession of nearby galaxies can be explained by an expanding universe, which was
observationally confirmed soon afterward by Edwin Hubble.

Big Bang Theory

• Universe began from a single primordial atom at a definite point in time.

• A tremendous explosion occurred – the “big bang” which caused the universe to
expand at a great speed. All the matter and energy in the universe and even space
itself are the results of big bang.

George Gamow (with his student Ralph Alpher and nuclear scientist Hans Bethe) –
hypothesized the Big Bang Theory to explain the origin of the universe.

Edwin Hubble – proved that ‘nebulae’ were distant galaxies containing 109 to 1013 stars.
(Hubble Space Telescope)

Evidence to support the Big Bang Theory:

1. Measurements showed that the universe is expanding and that the galaxies are
moving away from one another at high speeds.
2. Cosmic background radiation was detected.

3. Discovery of primordial helium.

Cosmic Microwave Background (Arno Allan Penzias and Robert W. Wilson)

Best representation of the universe. An electromagnetic radiation as a remnant from

an early stage of the universe, also known as “relic radiation”

- Using the Horn Antenna, they discovered the radiation coming from any directions

Formation of The Universe:

1. It started in a big bang

2. Seconds later, radiation form into matter
3. And galaxies formed from matter

Lesson 1.2. Formation of Heavier Elements in the Evolution of the Universe

TWO MAJOR STAGES OF EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

Radiation Era – with 8 epochs: Planck, Grand Unified, Inflationary, Electroweak, Quark,
Hadron, Lepton, and Nuclear

A few seconds after the big bang, protons, neutrons, and electrons consisted of the universe
(Hadron Epoch).

● Proton – positively charged particles found within atomic nuclei.

● Neutron – neutral subatomic particle with the same mass as proton and present in all
atomic nuclei except ordinary hydrogen.
● Electron – negatively charged particles found in all atoms and acting as the primary
carrier of electricity in solids.

Matter Era – with 3 epochs: Atomic, Galactic and Stellar

Albert Einstein discovers the photon, the first boson to be discovered.

Murray Gell-Mann proposes the existence of quarks, the fundamental particles that make
up protons and neutrons.

Nucleosynthesis is the process that formed heavier elements.

Deuterons – combinations of a proton and a neutron.

● 13.7 billion years - age of the universe.

● Bigbang- rapid explsoion/ theory where most believes in.
○ Explosion
○ Radiation to matter
○ Matter to galaxies
● George Lemaitre- found out about the tiny singularity
 ● Stellar epoch- present time
● George Gamow- an advocate of bigbang theory
● Hydrogen and helium- first two elements that where discovered

CHAPTER 2: The Idea of the Atom

Lesson 3: Models of an ATOM

- The development of the atomic models of matter started with the early greek concept of
the atom.
a. Greek philosophers and thinkers were the first to describe matter.
b. Greek philosophers were also the first to wonder whether the matter could be
divided infinitely into small pieces or there was a limit to the number of times a
piece of matter could be divided.

DEMOCRITUS- concluded that matter could not be divided into smaller and smaller pieces
infinitely.
- Smallest possible piece of matter could be obtained eventually and that is indivisible.

Indivisible- “Smallest piece of an atom; “ATOMOS” (GREEK WORD)

ATOMOS- Cannot be obtained or Indivisible.

● Philosophers who shared the idea of democrI about the atoms were called
ATOMISTS.

ATOMISTS- hypothesized that atoms look small, hard, made of the same materials, and had
different sizes and shapes. They also hypothesized that atoms could be combined, always
moving, and infinite in number. (although they seemed to be on the right path)

ALCHEMISTS

- They used symbols to designate the elements.

- Several elements and prepared mineral acids.
- Development of systematic metallurgy
- Medicinal application of metals from one laid the foundations of modern chemistry.
 ● Contribution of John Dalton toward the understanding of the Concept of Chemical
Elements

John Dalton- English Chemist, first person to give out atomic theory in 1803.
- Atoms were responsible for the formation of compounds by combining two or more
elements.
- According to him, an atom is the smallest, indivisible particle of an element that takes
part in the chemical reaction.

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

1. Elements are made up of tiny particles called atoms.
2. Atoms are indivisible particles of matter.
3. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
4. Atoms of the same element are alike in their mass and chemical properties.
5. Atoms of different elements differ in their mass and chemical properties.
6. Two or more elements can be combined to form a compound.
7. Chemical reactions involve only separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms. It
does not result in the creation or destruction of atoms.

● DALTON’S MODEL
- SOLID SPHERE MODEL or Bowling Ball Model (JOHN DALTON)

Atomic Models
J.J. THOMSON
● An English Scientist first speculated that an atom is made up of even smaller particles.
● He performed experiments studying cathode rays and discovered that they were unique
particles, later named electrons

- He discovered the electron in 1897.

- Proposed the Plum Pudding Model of the Atom in 1904.
- In Thomson’s model, the atom is composed of electrons surrounded by positive charge
to balance the electrons' negative charges.

Rutherford’s Model of the Atom

- Ernest Rutherford’s model shows that an atom is mostly empty space, with electrons
orbiting a fixed, positively charged nucleus in set, predictable paths.
- He conducted an experiment where he bombarded alpha particles in a thin sheet of
gold. Observations of Rutherford contradicted the plum pudding model of J.J. Thomson.

Findings of Rutherford’s Experiment:

 - Most of the positively charged bullets easily passed through the foil without changing the
direction.
- Atom is mostly empty space, contrary to Thomson’s claim that it is filled with positively
charged materials.
- Some bullets bounced back, which indicates that they hit something solid which repelled
them.
- Rutherford thought that only positive particles would repel the bullets.
- Atom is mostly an empty space that has a dense positively charged center which is a
nucleus.

Neils Bohr Model of an Atom

- Bohr improved Rutherford’s model by noticing that energy levels in atoms went up and
down by specific, “pre-set” amounts. He suggested that electrons move around the
nucleus of an atom like planets around the sun and that they move from orbit to orbit as
they gain and lose energy.
- This model of the atom is still the most famous of all models, and though it is not the
most accurate, it predicts chemical reactions very well.
(It is important to remember, though, that atoms probably do not really look like this.)
The Wave Model of the Atom
Since Bohr, most scientists have tried to describe atoms using mathematical models instead of
physical ones.
Generally, in these modern models, they keep the nucleus where Rutherford and Bohr left it,
and try to describe the location and movement of electrons, which can best be described as a
“cloud” which surrounds the nucleus.
Even more recent theories suggest that matter, at its most basic level, isn’t even made of
particles at all, but consists of really tiny fields of vibrating energy.
Modern Atomic Model

Lesson 2.2. Structure of the Atom

 ● The nucleus (plural, nuclei)- is a positively charged region at the center of the atom.
● A proton is found in the nucleus of the atom.
● Protons have a positive electrical charge of one (+1) and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit
(amu), which is about 1.67 × 10-27 kilograms.
- Together with neutrons, they make up virtually all of the mass of an atom.
● Ernest Rutherford discovered the proton, the first particle to be discovered
in the nucleus of the atom.

A neutron - is a neutral particle of an atom found in the nucleus.

● James Chadwick discovered the neutron.
An electron is a negatively charged particle of an atom found outside the nucleus.
All atoms have the same number of electrons as protons, so the positive and negative
charges “cancel out,” making atoms electrically neutral.

● J.J. Thomson discovers the electron.

John Newlands. Proposed the Law of Octaves, that when elements were arranged
according to increasing mass, the properties of the eight elements (starting from a given
element ) are a repetition of the properties of the first element. Just like “do re mi”.

Dmitri Mendeleev devised the periodic classification of the chemical elements, in which the
elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic weight. When he did this he noted
that the chemical properties of the elements and their compounds showed a periodic trend.

Periodicity- tabulations of elements based on the periodic recurrence of elements.

This new system grouped the elements together according to their properties and it was able to
predict the properties of elements which were not yet discovered.

Henry Moseley. He discovered a systematic relation between wave- length and atomic
number.

This discovery is now known as Moseley's Law.

● Atomic Number = Number of Protons

● Mass Number = Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons

Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear
instability.
Transmutation or nuclear transmutation is a process that involves a change in the
nucleus of an atom. When the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom changes, the
identity of that atom changes as it is turned into another element or isotope. This transmutation
process can be either natural or artificial.

Chemical reactions are affected by the following: temperature, pressure,

concentration, and catalyst.
ADDITIONAL
Where can we find the nucleus?
- Nucleus can be found at the center of an atom
- It is the core of the atom

How much of the mass of an atom is located at the center?

- It is 99 percent of the mass of an atom.
How much smaller is the size of the nucleus compared to the size of an atom?
- The nucleus is 100,000 times smaller than the size of af the atom
- If we are to compare an atom to a football stadium, the nucleus will just be about the
size of the marble.
What sub-particles are found in the nucleus?
- The two main sub-particles of the atom are found in the nucleus: protons and neutrons.
Moving around the nucleus are the electrons.
What led to the discovery of the neutrons?

- It was found that the ratio of the mass of He to H is 2:1 so there must be another
subatomic particle present in the atomic nucleus.

How did Chadwick surmise the presence of electronically neutral particles?

- Gamma-ray emission was not deflected by electric or magnetic fields when beryllium
was bombarded with alpha particles so there must be a third type of subatomic particle
which is neutral.

What are the characteristics of the electrons?

 - These are negatively charged and the lightest subatomic particles of atoms. These
particles keep on moving outside the nucleus of the atom.

Sample Table for Complete the Table part of the quiz.

Name of Symbol of Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

Element Element Number Number Protons Neutrons Electrons

Potassium K 19 39 19 20 19

Nitrogen N 7 14 7 7 7

Oxygen O 8 16 8 8 8

Barium Ba 56 137 56 81 56

Sample Problem: 63Cu= 69.2% and 65Fe= 30.8%

= (63)(0.692) + (65)(0.308)
= 43.596 + 20.02
= 63.616 or 63.62 u (u means unified atomic)

Chapter 3: The Properties of Matter Relate to Their Chemical

Structure

Lesson 3.1: Polar and Nonpolar Molecules

Molecules- are formed by polar bonds. Bonds are either ionic or covalent.

The geometry of Molecules:

Compounds are affected by molecular structure = geometry of atoms

● Importance in understanding the physical and chemical behavior of substances.

● Molecules of compounds are formed by chemical bonds
● Bonds are either Ionic or Covalent (two extremes of bonding spectrum)

Ionic bond – occurs between a metal and a nonmetal; there is a complete transfer of valence
electron(s) between atoms.
 - oppositely charged ions are held together by electrostatic attraction.

Example of an ionic bond between sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) atoms
Ionic Sodium - Salt- is the best example of Ionic Bonds

- The transform of valence selection of atoms = ions being formed

- Usually occurs between metals & non-metals / the combination

Covalent bonds- occur primarily between nonmetals; there is a sharing of electrons between
atoms.
- Sharing of electrons between atoms

Polar covalent bonds- when electrons in a covalent bond are not shared equally.
- One atom is stronger than the other atom.
Nonpolar covalent bonds- when electrons in a covalent bond are shared equally.
Metals- good conductor / big amount of reactivity
Non-metals- bad conductor/ small amount of reactivity/ mostly gas
Metalloids- semi-conductor of energy

Electronegativity – the ability of an atom to draw shared electrons towards itself. It determines
the electron density of the shared electrons or the place where the electrons spend most of their
time.
- Identifies the type of bonding
- Increases from left to right/ decreases as you go down

Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons (or electron

density) towards itself. It determines how the shared electrons are distributed between the two
atoms in a bond. The more strongly an atom attracts the electrons in its bonds, the larger its
electronegativity.

Value of electronegativity difference between atoms and the type of bond that they will
form.

The difference in Bond formed between atoms

electronegativity between
atoms
 ≤ 0.5 Nonpolar/covalent

Between 0.5 and 2.0 Polar covalent

≥ 2.0 Ionic

The bond between atoms with an electronegativity difference of less than 0.5 is considered
nonpolar; between 0.5 and 2.0 is considered polar covalent; greater than 2.0 is generally
considered ionic.

In general, electronegativity increases from left to right across a period in the periodic table and
decreases down a group. Thus, the nonmetals, which lie in the upper right, tend to have the
highest electronegativities, with fluorine the most electronegative element of all (EN = 4.0).

Lesson 3.2: General Types of Intermolecular Forces

Gases- weakest intermolecular.

- The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is much larger than the average energy
of the attractions between them.
Liquid- strong intermolecular that holds
 - the intermolecular attractive forces are strong enough to hold the molecules close
together but without much order.
Solid- considered the strongest intermolecular/ it locks the molecules in place
- the intermolecular attractive forces are strong enough to lock molecules in place (high
order).

Phase Change:
● Solid-liquid ( melting - freezing)
● Liquid-gas (vaporizing- condensing)
● Solid-gas (sublimation-deposition)

Intermolecular Forces- are attractive forces that act between atoms or molecules in a pure
substance.
- are coulombic attractive forces between molecules
- These attractive forces are between two oppositely charged particles and are generally
much weaker than covalent bonds.
- Collectively, these are called “ van der Waals forces”. (after Dutch chemist
Johannes van der Waals, 18371923).

Intermolecular forces determine bulk properties, such as the melting points of solids and the
boiling points of liquids.

● . Liquids boil when the molecules have enough thermal energy to overcome the
intermolecular attractive forces that hold them together, thereby forming bubbles of
vapor within the liquid.
● Similarly, solids melt when the molecules acquire enough thermal energy to overcome
the intermolecular forces that lock them into place in the solid.

TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AS REFLECTED BY PROPERTIES OF

SUBSTANCE

a. Dipole-dipole interactions
b. Hydrogen bonding
c. Dispersion forces
d. Ion- dipole interactions

Dipole-dipole interaction- - are the attractive forces that occur between polar molecules.
1. A molecule of hydrogen chloride has a partially positive hydrogen atom and a
partially negative chlorine atom. In a collection of many hydrogen chloride molecules,
they will align themselves so that the oppositely charged regions of neighboring
molecules are near each other.
Hydrogen Bonding- Molecules with hydrogen atoms bonded to electronegative atoms such as
O, N, and F (and to a much lesser extent, Cl and S) tend to exhibit unusually strong
intermolecular interactions.
 1. An atom such as F draws the electrons towards itself because of its high
electronegativity which means that electron density is drawn away from hydrogen. This
gives H a very high partial positive charge since hydrogen has only 1 electron which
makes it practically unshielded. The large positive charge of the hydrogen end of the
molecule becomes very attracted to the large partial negative end of another HF
molecule. This gives rise to a very strong dipole-dipole attraction between the molecules.

- Between polar molecules with the presence of hydrogen = polar molecules and
hydrogen
- In terms of the intermolecular, it is stronger than the dipole-dipole

Dispersion Forces- These intermolecular forces arise from the movement of electrons in the
nonpolar molecules.

- Nonpolar gases can be liquefied like O2 due to the movement of electrons in the
nonpolar molecules. The only intermolecular force exhibited by nonpolar molecules.

For hydrocarbons and other non-polar molecules which lack strong dipoles, these dispersion
forces are really the only attractive forces between molecules.

Since the dipoles are weak and transient, they depend on contact between molecules – which
means that the forces increase with surface area.
A small molecule like methane has very weak intermolecular forces, and has a low boiling
point. However, as molecular weight increases, the boiling point also goes up. That’s because
the surface over which these forces can operate has increased.
Therefore, dispersion forces increase with increasing molecular weight. Individually, each
interaction isn’t worth much, but if collectively, these forces can be extremely significant.

Ion-dipole Interaction- These are coulombic attractions between ions, either positive or
negative, and polar molecules.
- Their magnitude depends on the charge and size of the polar molecule.
 - Are involved in solutions where an ionic compound is dissolved into a polar solvent, like
that of a solution of table salt (NaCl) in water.
Order of strength of intermolecular forces if ranked from strongest to weakest:
1. Ion-Dipole
2. Hydrogen bonding
3. Dipole-dipole interactions
4. Dispersion forces
Boiling Point
● The boiling point of a compound is the temperature at which liquid molecules are
converted into gas.
● In boiling, energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces in the more ordered liquid
state.
● The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point.
Melting Point
● The melting point is the temperature at which a solid is converted to its liquid phase.
● In melting, energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces in the more ordered
crystalline solid.

Types of Molecular Forces as reflected by Properties of substance

1. Molecular Covalent Type
● This is very easy to separate and has a relatively low melting point.
● Most of these substances are either gases or liquids.
2. Network Type Specie
● The attractive forces between the atoms are very strong.
● They are invariably solid with high melting and boiling points.
Example is a diamond.
3. Ionic Type
● They conduct electric current when molten.
● They also have very high melting and boiling points.
● They include metallic types.
A stronger molecular force will result to the following:
1. higher melting point

2. higher boiling point

3. more likely to remain in a solid-state

Boiling point increases with molecular weight, and with surface area.

The strength of dispersion forces

Dispersion forces between molecules are much weaker than the covalent bonds within
molecules. It isn't possible to give an exact value, because the size of the attraction varies
considerably with the size of the molecule and its shape.

How molecular size affects the strength of the dispersion forces

Boiling points increase as you go down the group because the number of electrons increases,
and so also does the radius of the atom. The more electrons you have, and the more distance
over which they can move, the bigger the possible temporary dipoles and therefore the bigger
the dispersion forces.

How molecular shape affects the strength of the dispersion forces

The shapes of the molecules also matter. Long thin molecules can develop bigger temporary
dipoles due to electron movement than short fat ones containing the same numbers of
electrons.

Long thin molecules can also lie closer together - these attractions are at their most effective if
the molecules are really close.

I. For example, the hydrocarbon molecules butane and 2-methylpropane both have a
molecular formula C4H10, but the atoms are arranged differently. In butane, the carbon
atoms are arranged in a single chain, but 2-methylpropane is a shorter chain with a
branch.

Butane has a higher boiling point because the dispersion forces are greater. The molecules are
longer (and so set up bigger temporary dipoles) and can lie closer together than the shorter,
fatter 2methylpropane molecules.

Lesson 3.3: Different Materials Have Different Uses Depending on Ther Properties

Organic compounds- Substances that contain carbon, usually in combination with elements
such as hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, halogens, and phosphorus.

- Substances that contain carbons

- carbons= chains - that can line to any elements that can create millions of organic
compounds.

Example: are gasoline, medicine, shampoo, plastic bottles, perfumes, fabrics like cotton and
silk, and even synthetic compounds like polyester and nylon.

Properties of Organic Compounds

1. They have covalent bonds.

2. Low melting and boiling point.

3. Burn vigorously.

4. Soluble in nonpolar solvents.

5. They form large molecules of organic compounds.

Kinds of Hydrocarbons

1. Alkanes- the only saturated hydrocarbon= no double bonding/ single bonding only
- hydrocarbons that only have single bonds. Every carbon atom is bonded to four
atoms, which is known as a saturated hydrocarbon.
- Example: Methane
2. Alkenes- unsaturated hydrocarbons = double bonding
- contain one or more double bonds called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
3. Alkynes- unsaturated hydrocarbons = triple bonding
- unsaturated hydrocarbons with triple bonds.
4. Aromatic Hydrocarbon- six-sided = benzene rings/ associated with the bonds
- contain one or more benzene rings.

Carbon’s Special Properties

- Can combine with any carbon / can be associated to any elements

- Can form multiple chains

It has an ability to form many different compounds, bond with another carbon and form chains,
can accommodate elements other elements than carbon and hydrogen, lastly can
accommodate functional groups that can form multiple bonds.

- 2.55 electronegativity prohibits ion formation

Its position on the periodic table gives it the following unique characteristics:
a) Electronic configuration prohibits ion formation effectively
b) Small atomic radius allows atoms to approach closely giving rise to a stronger and
stable carbon-carbon compound, and
c) Valence electrons can be occupied or attached resulting to a chemical reaction.

Many of the materials today are made of compounds that belong to hydrocarbons.
1. Medical implants and prosthetics – biopolymers are used to replace diseased body parts
2. Sports Equipment – polystyrene foam is for the helmet
3. Electronic Devices – semiconductors for conduction like diodes (LED).
4. Construction supplies for buildings and furniture – synthetic polymers and butanone
5. Household gadgets – dacron, nylon, polyethylene, tetrafluoroethylene and polyacrylonitrile

Oil or coal- a mixture of hydrocarbons and organic compounds

Structures of Biological Macromolecules determine their Properties and Functions

1. Carbohydrates- are also called SACCHARIDES which means sugar. Table sugar,
lactose, and cellulose are made up of C, H, and O. Energy from sunlight is used to
combined carbon dioxide and water into simple carbohydrates such as glucose plus
oxygen.
● Monosaccharides – simplest carbohydrates
● Disaccharides – two monosaccharides joined together
● Polysaccharides – complex carbohydrates

Mono —------ di—---------------poly—--

Glucose- main source of energy (sugar)

2. Lipids- fats
- soluble in organic solvents but not in water. From the Greek word,lipos means fat
or lard. It can be extracted from plant cells using organic solvents like
chloroform, or acetone. It is important in the cell membranes, fat-soluble
vitamins, and steroid hormones.
3. Nucleic Acids- growth and reproduction= from plant cells (cell membrane)
- molecules in our cells that store and direct information for cellular growth and
reproduction. When wrong information was transmitted to ribosome, leads to
formation of defective proteins and malfunctioning enzymes.
4. Proteins- building blocks of life
- from the word proteios which means first.
- Made of amino acids and provides structure in membranes, builds cartilages and
connective tissues, transport oxygen in blood and muscles, defends against
infection, controls metabolic processes as hormones.
- Examples are insulin, hemoglobin, virus proteins, and enzymes.
All proteins are polymers and made up of about 20 different kinds of amino acids
arranged in a specific order that determines characteristics and biological functions.

Enzymes- “reactions” to go speed up the chemical process

 - proteins acting as biological catalysts in the cells of the body. For digestion, contraction
produces biomolecules and energy for survival.
Types of proteins:
1. Storage Proteins – casein
2. Structural Proteins – collagen
3. Contractile Proteins – myosin
4. Transport Proteins – lipoproteins
5. Hormones – insulin and growth hormones
6.Enzymes – sucrose, trypsin, and hydrogenase
7. Antibodies – immune globulin.

Water and Oil Experiment = Polar and Non-polar

● Emulsifier- can combine polar and nonpolar (soap)
● Hydrophilic- water-loving
● Hydrophilic- water-fearing

CHAPTER 4: Chemical Changes

Lesson 4.1. Rate of Reaction

Collision Theory of Chemical Reaction

Reactant → Product

Collision theory of chemical kinetics

Effective collision
Factors that increase the rate of reaction
1. Reactant concentration
2. Increase in temperature
3. Increase in the surface area
4. Properly oriented molecules at collision
Role of catalysts in reaction rates
Types of catalyst
1. Heterogeneous catalyst
2. Homogeneous catalyst
3. Biological catalyst

Lesson 4.2 Chemical Change

Chemical Equation
During a chemical reaction, atoms cannot be created nor destroyed. It follows the law of
conservation of matter.
Balancing Chemical Equations
Exercise:

1. NO + O2 → NO2
N–1 N-1
O–3 O–2

Balanced: 4NO + 2O2 → 4NO2

More Relationships in Chemical Equations

Conservation of Mass: mass of reactants = mass of product

3H2 + N2 → 2NH3

3 moles 1 mole 2 moles

6 g H2 28 g N2 → 34 g NH3

Limiting Reactants
Determine the amount of NH3 that forms in the reaction when 84.06 g N2 and 22.18 g H2 react.

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3

1 mole 3 moles 2 moles

84.06g N2 x (1 mole/28g) = 3moles N2
22.18g H2 x (1 mole/2g) = 11 moles H2
3 moles
3 moles 9 moles 6 moles
Therefore, limiting reactant is N2.
Excess reactant is H2….. used up is only 9 moles.. excess = 11 – 9 = 2 moles
How many grams of NH3 are produced?
NH3 = 14 + 3 = 17 g
6 moles x 17 g/ mole = 102 g
Mass reactants = mass products
3 moles N2 = 3moles x 28 g/mole = 84g
9moles H2 = 9moles x 2g/mole = 18 g

In a reaction vessel there are 8 moles of X and 5 moles of Y. Product Z is formed according to
the following reaction:

2X + Y → Z

CH3OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O

2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O

2 moles 3moles 2moles 4moles

3X = 0.319
X = 0.319/3 = 0.106 factor
0.212 mole 0.319 mole 0.212mole 0.424 mole
10.4g CH3OH 10.2g O2
12 + 4 + 16 = 32g/mole ch3oh
10.4 g ch3oh x (1mole/32g) = 0.325mole
10.2 g o2 x (1mole/32g) = 0.31875 mole

O2 = limiting reactant
CH3OH = excess reactant excess = 0.325 - 0.212 = 0.113 mole

Reaction Yield
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
% yield = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

Factors that affect % yield:

1. Incomplete reaction
 2. Impure reactants
3. Competing side reactions
4. Loss of product during filtration in transferring between containers

Example:
Calcium carbonate is decomposed by heating. The balanced equation for this
reaction is

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) + heat

What is the theoretical yield of CaO if 24.8 g CaCO3 is heated? How much is the % yield in the
reaction if 12 grams of CaO is obtained?

Energy in Chemical Reaction

Activation energy – energy needed to break the bonds between atoms in the molecule.
The reaction takes place when the collision energy is equal to or greater than the activation
energy.
Exothermic reaction – when heat energy is given off during a chemical reaction; the energy of
the product is lower than that of the reactants.
Endothermic energy – when heat energy is absorbed during a chemical reaction; the energy of
the product is higher than the energy of the reactants.
How Energy is Harnessed from Different Sources
1. Fossil Fuels
2. Biogas
3. Geothermal
4. Hydrothermal
5. Batteries
6. Solar cells
7. Biomass

Chemical Changes- the process when one or more substances change into entirely new
substances with different properties.

The following reactions produce new substances with new characteristics:

● Iron reacts with oxygen to produce rust (Fe2O3)
● Silver reacts with sulfur to produce tarnished silver (Ag2S)
 ● Antacid tablets and water produce CO2 formed from NaHCO3 or sodium hydrogen
carbonate.
Rate of reaction:
● In Chemical Kinetics, it is studied to see how fast reactions take place.
● Some happen almost instantaneously like photosynthesis. While some are very slow like
rusting of iron or production of wine.

Collision Theory of Chemical Reaction:

- General Equation, reactant = product
- Reactants are used up to form products, It happens when reactants collide with one
another.
- The frequency of collisions among reactants determines the rate of reaction between the
molecules of the reactants.
- The reaction rate is directly proportional to the number of molecular collisions per
second.

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Rate of reaction = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

● If X and Y are reactants if X is doubled then the rate of collision with Y will also double.

EFFECTIVE COLLISION
- Collision resulting in a reaction to form a product

Molecules
- Are always in motion. They possess kinetic energy, and if they collide some
kinetic is converted to vibrational energy
Activation Energy
- Minimum amount of energy that will initiate a chemical reaction.

Other factors in increasing the rate of reaction:

1. Reactant Concentration
2. Increase in temperature
3. Increase in the surface area of solid reactant
4. Properly oriented molecules in collision

REACTANT COLLISION
The concentration of reactants affects the rate of reaction. At a higher concentration, the
molecules collide more often. This results in an increase in the number of effective collisions
thereby resulting in an increase in reaction rates.

INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE
When the temperature becomes higher, molecules of the reactants move faster. This causes
more frequent collisions. It also results in greater energy at impact. These factors increase the
number of effective collisions and an increase in the rate of reaction.
INCREASE IN THE SURFACE AREA OF THE SOLID REACTANTS
With greater surface area, the molecules of the reactants can collide more frequently, thereby
resulting in a greater number of effective collisions and an increase in reaction rates. So, given
a solid reactant, their effective collisions can be increased if the solid is finely divided to obtain
more surface area.

PROPERLY ORIENTED MOLECULES

Molecules must be oriented such that it favors reaction. Otherwise, the reactants will only
bounce off with one another.

The roles of catalysts in reaction rates

Catalyst – a substance that increases the rate of reaction without itself being consumed.

Example: I- or iodide in the decomposition of H2 O2 or hydrogen peroxide.

Types of catalysts:
1. Heterogeneous Catalysts - Reactants(liquid/gas) and catalyst(solid) are in
different phases. Most important in industrial chemistry and in catalytic inverters
in automobiles
2. Homogeneous Catalysts- - Reactants and catalysts are dispersed in a single
phase, usually a liquid. Acid and base catalysts are the most important type of
liquid solution.
3. Biological Catalysts- Enzymes are biological catalysts. It is usually
homogeneous because the substrate and enzyme are present in an aqueous
solution.

PHYSICAL CHANGE

Affects one or more physical properties of a substance. The appearance, shape, and size may
be altered but do not change the chemical identity of a substance.

Examples: pouring of milk, boiling of water, sawing a log in half, cutting paper into
pieces, breaking a glass.

LIMITING REACTANT

In carrying out a chemical reaction, chemists do not use reactants, their goal is to produce the
maximum quantity of a useful product. The expensive material will be used up first in the
reaction, called the limiting reactant since it limits the amount of the product that can be formed.

Energy in Chemical Reactions:

● A chemical reaction will proceed when the molecules of the reactants come in contact
with one another. During a collision, atoms are broken and new atoms can form.
Activation energy is needed to break the bonds.
● Reactions will only take place when collision energy is equal to or greater than the
activation energy.
EXOTHERMIC- The reaction when the energy of the products is lower than that of the
reactants, heat energy is given off.
ENDOTHERMIC- –The reaction when the energy of the product is higher than the energy of the
reactants and heat is absorbed.

How energy is harnessed from different sources:

1. FOSSIL FUEL- .combustible materials that took millions of years to form underneath the
earth. Also called conventional fuel. Extensively used due to technical convenience and
economy. Chemical energy into heat and light by burning, then to mechanical energy by
the engine or electrical energy by the generator.
Example: Coal, Petroleum, and Methane Gas or now called natural gas

2. BIOGAS- produced by anaerobic decomposition of organic materials brought about by

certain varieties of bacteria. A combustible gas consisting mostly of inflammable
hydrocarbon gas called methane.
- Placed in an airtight container called a digester, methanogenic and non-
methanogenic bacteria produce methane gas. Through burning it produces heat
and light energy for cooking and lighting.
- Raw materials in biogas production: Waste materials like cellulose, fats, oils,
proteins, starches, and sugar.
3. GEOTHERMAL- the heat obtained from underneath the earth and carried to thEE
surface steam. Also in the form of dry, hot rocks. Holes are drilled after which water is
pumped into the hole and steam is then pumped out. Steam is used to produce
electricity.
- The heat is close enough to the surface manifested in volcanoes, geysers, hot
springs, and boiling pools.

4. HYDROTHERMAL- moving water is a source of energy. Moving and falling water is

used to turn waterwheels. Before, waterwheels were used to turn millstones, now it is
used to run turbines and generators to produce electricity.
- Most common sources: Water in dams or from waterfalls

5. BATTERIES- voltatic cells undergo electrochemical processes to produce electrical

energy.

a.Dry cell – electrolyte is a paste. The zinc container is the anode an graphite is
the cathode.

b.Lead storage battery – used in cars, are connected together. One set of grids
packed with spongy lead is the anode while set of grids with lead oxide is the
cathode.

c.Fuel cell – chemical energy from fuel into electrical. Require a continuous
supply of fuel and oxygen to sustain chemical reaction.
6. SOLAR CELLS- photovoltaic cells used for powering homes. Solar energy is used
directly from the sun. Solar energy systems of solar cells convert the incoming radiant
 energy from the sun into a usable form. Sunlight to electrical energy.

7. BIOMASS- – formed from plants and animal materials. Firewood is the traditional form
of biomass. It is burned directly, to provide heat and light energy. In some instances, it is
first converted into forms of fuel like alcohol.

Examples: Corn, sugar beets, potatoes, and sugar can be converted to alcohol. While
water lilies are used to produced methane or swamp gas.

CHAPTER 5: Household and Personal Care Products

Household and care products are important products used at home. Most of these are cleaning
materials and cosmetics. It is important to be aware of the properties and mode of action of
these cleaning and cosmetics products.

SAPONIFICATION- -The process of making soap. Soap is the most common household
cleaning materials. Long ago, people heat mixture of animal fats with a basic solution of lye from
wood ashes. Today, soaps are prepared from oils and fats of vegetables and plants like coconut
oil and perfumes are added.

-It is the hydrolysis of oils and fats by boiling with an aqueous solution of alkali metal hydroxide.
Soaps are alkali metal.
-The polar end is hydrophilic or water-loving, while the nonpolar hydrocarbon chain is
hydrophobic or water-fearing. When mixed with dirt and grease, nonpolar bonds are attracted to
nonpolar oil and grease particle.

OTHER CLEANING AGENTS:

Cleaning agents are substances that are usually liquids, powder, sprays or granules. Normally
water solutions (acidic, alkaline or neutral). May also be solvent-based or solvent-containing
which are called degreaser.
Examples: Borax is a strong cleaner and water softener, Lysol is a household
disinfectant spray, active ingredient is o-phenyl phenol. Rubbing alcohol or isopropyl
alcohol, waxes, beeswax and carnauba wax (palm tree).

PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS

Emulsions – are colloidal dispersion of liquids in liquids. An emulsifying agent is needed for the
formation of an emulsion and important for maintaining the stability of the emulsion.
Example: Oil and grease are not soluble in water, but quick to form a colloidal dispersion
if soap or detergent is added to water, soap and detergents are the emulsifying agents.
Cosmetics, shampoos, and lotions are formulated with emulsifiers to maintain consistent quality.

SOME COMMON PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS

1. Cosmetics – typical organic compounds that are modified natural oils and fats as well
as variety of petrochemically-derived agents. Some cosmetics are inorganic compounds
that are processed minerals like iron oxides, talc, zinc oxides as pigments or colorants
 that have no solubility in solvents.
● Mineral make-ups apply to the category of face make up.
● Jojoba oil is used in making lipstick.
2. Lotions and Creams – Lanolin extracted from waxes obtained from wool is used in the
manufacture of hand and face lotions. It helps in the retention of water and in softening
the skin. Shaving creams are emulsions of oils, soaps or surfactants and water. Contain
alcohol, stearate citrate or witch hazel to prevent infection of cuts.
3. Deodorants – Prevent bad odor caused by bacteria. Antiperspirants affect odor as well
prevent sweating by affecting sweat glands. Zirconium tetrachlorohydrex is the active
ingredient of deodorants. Potassium alum or ammonium alum deodorant crystals are
also being used.

COMMONLY USED INGREDIENTS:

1. Phenols and phenol derivatives – antiseptics usually used in mouthwash, essential oils of
plants are derivative of phenol, while eugenol is found in leaves, vanillin in vanilla bean,
isoeugenol in nutmeg, thymol in thyme and mint.

2.Aliphatic alcohols – in mouthwash, perfumes and sprays. With glycerol, is viscous, sweet
tasting and water soluble liquid.
3. Ethyl acetate – a solvent widely used for fingernail polish.
4. Fragrant esters – used in perfumes, flowers and flavors of fruits are due to esters. Small
esters are volatile so we can smell them and also soluble in water so we can taste them.
5. Alpha hydroxyl acids – include glycolic, lactic, malic, tartaric and citric acids. Their main
function is to soften skin cells and lessen wrinkles.

BALANCING OF EQUATIONS AND PROBLEM RELATED TO TOPICS