LESSON 2: Atoms, Ions and Molecules

Introduction

One of the greatest discoveries in modern science that has unraveled the secrets of matter
is the discovery of the atom. Understanding the nature of the atom has catalyzed
breakthroughs in chemical technology which is a key to human development. Moreover,
unlocking the mysteries of the atom is vital in realizing many of the innovations in the other
allied sciences such as Biology, Physics, Astronomy, Medicine and the like.
An atom is the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination. It is too
small that the human eye can not see but with the use of modern technology like the
electron microscope, this can be made possible.
The atoms of the elements in the Periodic Table are neutral because they have equal
number of protons and neutrons. But somehow, if these atoms start to lose or gain
electrons, they become ions. This process undertaken by atoms is very indispensable in the
formation of compounds and molecules.

Activating Prior Learning

Observe three different kinds of leaves, flowers and fruits found in your backyard. Describe
their color, odor and taste and write your observation on the space provided.
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What could explain the difference in the color of the leaves, odor of the flowers and taste of
the fruit of the plant?
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ATOMIC THEORY
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 trace the historical development of the atom;
 describe the structure of the atom; and
 discuss the importance of the different components of the atom.

Everything that we know about the atom today is a collective contribution of the different
scientists who based their hypothesis of the atom to the early ideas of the ancient Greeks.

 Democritus
In the 5th century B.C. Democritus believed
that matter consists of very small particles
which he called atomos, a Greek word for
uncuttable or indivisible. He further posited
that these atoms are solid and different
atoms vary in size and shape. The difference
in the size and shape of atoms explains the
differing properties of matter.

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 John Dalton
In 1808, an English scientist and school
teacher, John Dalton has formulated a
precise definition of the indivisible
building blocks of matter that we call
atoms. Dalton’s work marked the
beginning of the modern era of
chemistry. The hypotheses about the
nature of matter on which Dalton’s
atomic theory is based can be
summarized as follows:

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

Note: This was rejected by modern view of the atom when quarks were discovered in
1964 by the physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig. Today, quarks are
regarded as the building blocks of matter.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical
properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
Note: This was rejected by modern view of the atom because of the concept of isotopes.
Isotopes are substances that have the same number of protons but differ in their
number of neutrons. The variability in the number of neutrons in the atom has caused
its mass number and properties to differ.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the
ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a
simple fraction.
Note: This conforms to the Law of Definite Composition or Proportion formulated Joseph
Proust
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of
atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.
Note: This conforms to the Law of Conservation of Mass formulated by Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier.

 Joseph John Thomson

The plum pudding model of the atom was

proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1904. He
described an atom as a positive sphere to
which sea of electrons are loosely
embedded on its surface. He suggested
further that the number of negative charged
particles equal the number of positive
charged particles in the atom making it to be
neutral. In addition to this, J.J. Thomson has
discovered electrons in 1897 using cathode
ray tube experiment. The cathode ray tube is
the forerunner of our television tubes.

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 A diagram of J.J. Thomson's cathode ray tube. The ray originates at the
cathode and passes through a slit in the anode. The cathode ray is deflected
away from the negatively-charged electric plate, and towards the positively-
charged electric plate. The amount by which the ray was deflected by a
magnetic field helped Thomson determine the mass-to-charge ratio of the
particles.

 Ernest Rutherford
Rutherford’s model of the atom is also known as
the nuclear model of the atom. This was
proposed by New Zealand – born physicist
Ernest Rutherford in 1911. The model described
the atom is almost an empty space composed of
tiny, dense, positively charged core called
a nucleus, in which nearly all the mass is
concentrated, around which the light,
negative constituents, called electrons, circulate
at some distance, much like planets revolving
around the Sun.

The following data obtained in his Thin Gold Foil experiment in 1899 were the basis in
describing an atom in his model:
1. Most of the alpha particles travelled straight through the thin gold foil. This indicates
that the atom is almost an empty space.
2. Few of the alpha particles returned back at the same side where they come from.
This indicates that the alpha particles hit a dense part of the atom at the center
known as the nucleus, the part of the atom where the mass is concentrated.
3. Some of the alpha particles were deflected at an angle. The deflection of the alpha
particles is an indication of the positive charge of the nucleus of the atom since alpha
particles are positively charged. This conforms to the “Law of Charges” by Charles
Coulomb which states that “like charges repel and unlike charges attract”

 Niels Bohr
Bohr model of the atom is also known as “Planetary
Model of the Atom” and was proposed in 1913 by
Danish physicist Niels Bohr. In his model, he
described an atom as consisted of a positive
nucleus surrounded by electrons that are revolving
around it in circular quantized orbit. The electrons
are held in their orbit by centripetal force.
However, these electrons can jump into a higher
energy levels when they absorbed heat or through
influence of electric current (excited state) and emit
electromagnetic radiation (photon) with
corresponding wavelength when they release the
absorbed heat (ground state).

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 Erwin Scrodinger and Werner Heisenberg
The electron cloud model is the current
accepted model of an atom. This was
developed by Erwin Scrodinger and
Werner Heisenberg in 1926. They
described the atom as consisted of a dense
nucleus surrounded by a cloud of fast
spinning electrons at various levels in
orbitals. The electron cloud or orbital is the
region in the atom where one
could get 90% chance of finding the
electrons.
However, the model cannot determine the
exact location and momentum of electrons
at the same time (Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle). To solve this dilemma,
Schrodinger proposed the following four (4)
sets of quantum numbers:

a. Principal Quantum Number – its symbol is n and has integral values 1, 2, 3 and so
forth. It is related to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a
particular orbital.
Example: In the outer electron configuration of Oxygen, 2p4, what is the n value? The
answer is n = 2. Remember that in electron configuration, it follows the symbol nlx.

b. Azimuthal or Angular Quantum number – its symbol is l and its values depend on
the orbital where the electron is located. The l value for s orbital is always 0, for p
orbital, it is always 1, d orbital is always 2 and f orbital is always 3. This quantum
number defines the shape of the sublevel of the atom to which the electron is found.
Example: What is the l value in the above example? The answer is l = 1 because the
electron is in the p sublevel.

c. Magnetic Quantum number – its symbol is ml (read as m sub l). It describes the
probable orientation of orbital in space. Within a subshell, the value of ml depends on
the value of the angular momentum quantum number, l. For a certain value of l,
there are (2l + 1) integral values of ml as follows:
sublevel L value ml = (2l + 1) ml possible values
s 0 1 0
p 1 3 -1, 0, +1
d 2 5 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
f 3 7 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3

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 Example: Give the ml value of the electrons in the outer configuration of the atom
Oxygen – 2p4.
Solution: Since the electrons are in the p sublevels, there are 3 possible values, it
can be -1, 0 or +1.
Note: For ml of specific electron in the orbital, use orbital box diagram to determine
the ml value.

Example: What is the ml value of the last entering electron of Oxygen atom? (This
means electron # 4 in 2p4 configuration)
Solution: Since the electron is in 2p orbital, the third column of the table above tells
that there are 3 orbital present in the sublevel, therefore, in the orbital box diagram,
distribute the 4 electrons in the 2p4 configuration in this manner:

So the answer is ml = -1

d. Spin Quantum Number – describes the angular momentum of electron and has
only two possible values, +1/2 and -1/2. You should remember that both values are
accepted for every electron in the atom. Its symbol is ms (read as m sub s).
Example: What is the ms value of the last entering electron in Oxygen atom with an
outer configuration of 2p4? The answer is either +1/2 or -1/2

Activity 1

1. Construct a miniature of the atom using indigenous materials.

2. Determine the four sets of quantum numbers of the electrons in 3d7.
3. Determine the 4 sets of quantum numbers in the last entering electron of 4p5.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atoms are tiny particles of matter (about 10 -10 m in diameter or approximately 1 pm in
diameter). They are the basic unit of matter and the defining structure of an element. Atoms
are composed of the following particles:

a. Protons are positively charged particle of the atom. They are found inside the
nucleus and contributory particles for the mass of the atom. These particles are
discovered by Ernest Rutherford and give atoms their identity.

b. Neutrons are uncharged particles that are found in the nucleus of the atom and
were discovered by James Chadwick. These particles contribute to the mass of the
atom and stabilize the nucleus by effectively moderating the repulsive force among
the protons in it.
Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons because they are particles of
the nucleus of the atom. Protons bind with neutron in the nucleus using strong
nuclear force. The nucleus is positively charged and the region in the atom where
the mass is concentrated.
c. Electrons are negatively charged particles which are discovered by J.J. Thomson
and are found outside the nucleus of the atom. These particles are not contributory
to the mass of the atom but are essential participants during chemical reaction
forming various compounds.

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 Properties of Sub – atomic Particles
Property Electron Proton Neutron
Symbol e- p+ n
Mass (amu) 0.000549 1.00728 1.00867
Mass (g) 9.1094 x 10 -28 1.6726 x 10 -24 1.6749 x 10 -24
Mass (kg) 9.109 × 10-31 1.673 × 10-27 1.675 × 10-27
Electric Charge -1 +1 0
1 amu = 1.6605 x 10 -24 g

Activity 2
1. Compose a jingle that features an atom, its components and their function.
2. Construct a timeline showing the development of the atom.

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
Electrons and quarks contain no discernible structure and cannot be reduced or separated
into smaller components. It is therefore reasonable to call these particles elementary
particles. The use of modern high – technology equipment today has helped us understand
better the atom and its fundamental particles. Today, modern view of the atom has proven
that it is comprised of many other elementary particles aside from what we have known
before.

The foundation of this innovation in atomic structure is attributed to the idea of Paul Dirac
who predicted in 1928 that “all particles should have their opposites called the anti –
particles”. The first of this was discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson, which he called
positron – the anti – particle of electron. When an electron and positron come into contact,
they mutually annihilate each other producing a flood of energy in accordance with
Einstein's famous equation, E = mc2.

 Leptons
Leptons are never found in the nucleus of atoms. They are not subject to the Strong
Nuclear Force which keeps the nucleus from flying apart. There are six (6) types of
leptons which include the electron, muon, tau and the neutrino having its three types
known as electron neutrino, muon neutrino and tau neutrino. The electron is
considered the simplest of the leptons. Neutrino on the other hand was postulated in
1934 by Enrico Fermi to explain certain aspect of radioactive decay.

 Baryons
The two most common baryons are the proton and neutron. Both are found in the
nuclei of atoms, being kept there by the Strong Nuclear Force that binds them
together. Baryons are made up of even more elementary particles called quarks. A
baryon particle is composed of quark triplet. An example is proton which is

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 composed of 2 u (up) quarks and a d (down) quark. Neutron on the other hand is
composed of 2 d quark and a u quark.
Quarks are very unususal because they have fractional electric charges. The are 6
types or flavors of quarks which include the up, down, strangeness, bottom (or
beauty) and top (or truth).

The Six Types of Quarks

Name of Quark Symbol Charge Mass (MeV)

Up u +(2/3) 2–8

Down d -(1/3) 5 – 15

Strangeness s -(1/3) 100 – 300

Charm c +(2/3) 1,000 – 1,600

Bottom (or Beauty) b -(1/3) 4,100 – 4,500

Top (or Truth) t +(2/3) 180,000

The Baryon Particles and their Charges

Baryon Particle Quark Triplet Charge

p (proton) uud +(2/3)+(2/3)-(1/3) = +1

n (neutron) udd +(2/3)-(1/3)-(1/3) = 0

- ddd -(1/3)-(1/3)-(1/3) = -1

0 uds +(2/3)-(1/3)-(1/3) = 0

+ uus +(2/3)+(2/3)-(1/3) = +1

- sss -(1/3)-(1/3)-(1/3) = -1

C1++ cuu +(2/3)+(2/3)+(2/3) = +2

 Mesons
Mesons are particles only discovered when the forces binding nucleons together
were investigated. In a nucleus, the protons and neutrons are not really separate
entities, each with its own distinct identity. They change into each other by rapidly
passing particles called pions () between themselves. Pions are the most common
of the mesons. Mesons are composed of a quark / anti-quark pair. The positive
pion (+) is made from a u quark and and a (d) anti quark. The negative pion (-) is
made from a d quark and a (u) anti quark.
Based on spin of the particle, the elementary particles can be categorized into
Fermions and Bosons. Fermions have spin that have half – integer values like 1/2,
1/3, 3/2 etc. This characteristic spin of Fermion proves that they obey Pauli’s
Exclusion Principle. Leptons and baryons belong to this category. Bosons on the

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 other hand, have integer spin (0, 1, 2 etc.) Bosons do not obey the Pauli Exclusion
Principle. The best known Boson is the massless photon, a quantum of light.

Activity 3

Construct a concept map that shows the different categories of elementary particles of the
atom.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND ATOMIC MASSES

The atomic number of an element is the number of protons found in the nucleus of its
atom. Its symbol is Z. For a neutral atom, the number of proton is always equal to the
number of electron in the atom.

Z = p = e-

Example: The atomic number of Oxygen is 8. How many protons and electrons are
there in its atom?

Answer: There are 8 protons in its nucleus and 8 electrons circling around it. The number
of protons equals the number of electrons since the atom is neutral.

Atomic Mass

The atomic mass of an element can be determined by adding the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of its atom. Its symbol is A.

A = p + n or A = Z + n n = A – Z or n = A – p

Example 1: The atomic number of Oxygen is 8 and there are 8 neutron in its nucleus.
What is the atomic mass of Oxygen atom?

Answer: Adding the atomic number and number of neutron, A = 8 + 8 = 16. So atomic
mass is 16. This value coincides with the atomic mass of Oxygen as seen on the periodic
table of elements when rounded off to whole number.
184
Example 2. The nuclear symbol for an atom of Tungsten is 74 W , how many protons,
electrons and neutrons are there in the atom?

Answer: The nuclear symbol of an atom is represented as AZ X , where A is the Atomic

mass and Z is the atomic number. Therefore, p = 74, e - = 74 and n= A – z , n = 184 – 74
= 110

You should remember that atoms of a given element do not have the same mass. Most
elements have two or more isotopes – atoms that have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers or same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons.
For example: The three isotopes of Hydrogen are: a.) protium, 11 H , has 1 proton and 0
2 3
neutron; b.) deuterium, 1 H has 1 proton and 1 neutron and c.) tritium, 1 H has 1 proton and 2
neutrons.

Look at the atomic mass of the elements on the periodic table, the value that you see is the
average atomic mass of the element. Example, on the periodic table, the atomic mass of
Carbon is 12.011. This value is the average mass of the naturally occurring mixture of
isotopes of Carbon. How to arrive at the average mass of Carbon?

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Solution: the natural abundances of carbon-12 and carbon-13, the isotopes of Carbon are
98.90 % and 1.10 %, respectively. The atomic mass of carbon – 12 is 12.00000 amu and
carbon – 13 has been determined to be 13.00335 amu. Therefore:

average atomic mass of natural carbon = (0.9890)(12.00000 amu) + (0.0110)(13.00335

amu) = 12.011 amu

Activity 4
Solve the following problems:
1. Copper, a metal known since ancient times, is used in electrical cables and pennies,
among other things. The atomic masses of its two stable isotopes, 63 29 Cu (69.09 %)
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and 29Cu (30.91 %), are 62.93 amu and 64.9278 amu, respectively. Calculate the
average atomic mass of copper. The relative abundances are given in parentheses.

2. The atomic masses of the two stable isotopes of boron, 105B (19.78 percent) and 115 B
(80.22 percent), are 10.0129 amu and 11.0093 amu, respectively. Calculate the
average atomic mass of boron.

Look and analyzed the nuclear symbols of the following chemical substances:
40 40 40 40 40
16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar 19 K 20 Ca

These substances are classified as isobar. They have the same atomic mass (number of
nucleons) but differ in their atomic number (number of protons).

IONS
Atoms can become ion if it loses or gains an electron. Ions are substances that carry a
charge. The charge is due to the unequal number of electrons and protons in the atom. An
ion that carries a positive charge is called a cation while an anion carries a negative charge.
The positive charge of an atom indicates that it has more proton than electron and negative
charge indicates that the atom has more electrons than protons

Metals are regarded as electron donors, therefore, they tend to become cations. Examples
are Li+ (read as lithium ion), Na + (read as Sodium ion), K +, Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+ etc. Non-metals
on the other hand are electron acceptors, therefore, they tend to become anions. Examples
include C4- (read as carbide ion), N3- (read as nitride ion), O2- (read as oxide ion) etc.

The formation of ions by substances is a process undertaken to achieve stability. Stability is

attained when the outermost energy level of the atom is completely filled.

What happens to the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in an ion?

Example 1: How many protons, electrons and neutrons are present in an atom with a
nuclear symbol 27 3+
13 Al ?

Answer: p = 13, e- = 10, n = 14 Note: Al carries a 3+ charge. This indicates that Al has lose
3 e-. Therefore the difference between its number of protons and electron should be 3.

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Example 2: What is the number of protons, electrons and neutron in an atom with a nuclear
symbol 32 2-
16 P ?

Answer: p = 16, e- = 18, n = 16 Note: S carries 2- charge. This indicates that S has gained 2
electrons. Therefore, the difference between its number of protons and electron should be
2.

Activity 5:

Complete the following table:

Element Atomic Atomic # of # of # of Nuclea

Number Mass protons electrons neutrons r
(Z) (A) Symbol

Mg 12 12 12

Cl 17 18 18

Ag 47 108 61
127
I 53 P-
195
Pt 78 Pt

 MOLECULES

A molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together

by chemical forces (also called chemical bonds). A molecule may contain atoms of the
same element or atoms of two or more elements joined in a fixed ratio, in accordance
with the law of definite proportions. Thus, a molecule is not necessarily a compound,
which, by definition, is made up of two or more elements. Hydrogen gas, for example, is
a pure element, but it consists of molecules made up of two H atoms each. Water, on the
other hand, is a molecular compound that contains hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of two
H atoms and one O atom. Like atoms, molecules are electrically neutral. The hydrogen
molecule, symbolized as H2, is called a diatomic molecule because it contains only two
atoms. Other elements that normally exist as diatomic molecules are nitrogen (N 2) and
oxygen (O2), as well as the Group 7A elements—fluorine (F 2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine
(Br2), and iodine (I2). Of course, a diatomic molecule can contain atoms of different
elements. Examples are hydrogen chloride (HCl) and carbon monoxide (CO). The vast
majority of molecules contain more than two atoms. They can be atoms of the same
element, as in ozone (O3), which is made up of three atoms of oxygen, or they can be
combinations of two or more different elements. Molecules containing more than two
atoms are called polyatomic molecules. Like ozone, water (H 2O) and ammonia (NH3) are
polyatomic molecules.

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 Activity 6

Classify the following substances by putting a checking mark if it is a molecule and a

cross mark if it is not.
Substances Classification
MgCl2
Al(OH)3
C2H5OH
Na2C
H2SO4
SO2
SF6
HCOOH
P2O5
FeCl3

Assessment

I. Multiple Choice: Choose the best answer from the given choices. Write the letter of our
choice on the space provided.
_____1. Which of the following shows the CORRECT order of Atomic Theory Timeline?
a. Bohr, Democritus, Thomson, Rutherford, Dalton
b. Rutherford, Bohr, Dalton, Democritus, Thomson
c. Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, Democritus
d. Democritus, Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr

____2. Atoms of 16O, 17O, and 18O have the same number of
a. protons, but a different number of electrons
b.protons, but a different number of neutrons
c. electrons, but a different number of protons
d. neutrons, but a different number of protons

____3. A sample of element X contains 90% X-35 atoms, 8.0% X-37 atoms, and 2.0% X-38
atoms. The average
atomic mass will be closest to which value?
a. 35 b. 36 c. 37 d. 38

_____4. Which two atoms are isotopes of one another?

Atom # of proton # of neutron # of electron

A 8 10 8
B 10 9 10
C 9 9 9
D 8 11 8

a. A & B b. A & C c. B & C d. A & D

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____5. The atomic theories of Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr all support which of
the following statements?
a. atoms are mostly composed of empty space
b. electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at distinct energy
levels
c. all matter is composed of tiny, discrete particles called
atoms
d. atoms are composed of positively and negatively charged
particles.

____6. Deo counted the number of sub – atomic particles of

element X as follows:
Proton = 42 Electron = 44 Neutron = 48
Which of the following is a correct nuclear representation of
element X?
48
a. 44 X b. 44
42 X c. 90
42 X
2+
d. 90
42 X
2-

____7. Teacher Elisha calls on students to characterize protons of an atom. Which of the
following would be an acceptable answer?
a. Protons are involved during chemical reaction forming
various products.
b. The highly reactive electrons are stabilized by the proton
particles.
c. Every atom is identified by the number of protons inside its
nucleus.
d. The mass of the atom is given by the total mass of protons in the nucleus.
____8. A hypothetical element named Pedronium was found to
have 172 protons, 172 electrons and 205 neutrons. What
would be the atomic number of Pedronium?
a. 33 b. 172 c. 205 d. 377

____9. Which ot the following atomic particles are similar in number

in the following species?
Cl-, Ar, and K+

a. number of protons c. number of electrons

b. number of neutrons d. number of isotope

_____10. Which of the following shows the quark triplet composition

of a proton particle?
a. udd b. uud c. usd d. csu

_____11. Rutherford carried out experiments in which a beam of

alpha particles was directed at a thin piece of metal foil.
From these experiments he concluded that:
a. electrons are massive particles.
b. the positively charged parts of atoms are moving about
with a velocity approaching the speed of light
c. the positively charged parts of atoms are extremely small
and extremely heavy particles.
d. the diameter of an electron is approximately equal to
that of the nucleus.

_____12. Which of the responses contain all the statements that are
consistent with the Bohr’s theory of the atom?
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 1. An electron can remain in a particular orbit as long as it continually absorbs
radiation of a definite frequency.
2. The lowest energy orbits are those closest to the nucleus.
3. An electron can jump from the K shell (n = 1 major energy
level) to the M shell (n = 3 major energy level) by emitting
radiation of a definite frequency.
a. 1 only b. 2 only c. 3 only d. 2,3

____13. Electrons are either lose or gained by atoms to form ions. What is the driving force
for this mechanism of the atom?
a. Reactivity b. Stability c. Identity d. Volatility

____14. Which of the following sets of quantum numbers is not

allowed?
a. n = 3, l = 1, ml = -1, ms = + ½
b. n = 3, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + ½
c. n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = + ½
d. n = 2, l = 2, ml = -1, ms = - ½

____15. Which of the following substances is NOT a molecule?

a. ZnBr2 b. PH3 c. CH4 d. CO2

____16. Niels Bohr concluded that atoms are similar with the solar system in its orientation.
Electrons surround the nucleus of the atom and do not fall away from the nucleus. What
possible explanation supports this statement?
a. Electrons are held on their position by their attraction with the nucleus.
b. Electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus by the neutron of the atom.
c. Protons and electrons on the orbit of the atom established strong attractive force.
d. The electrons are being fixed on their position by the different quarks in the nucleus.

____17. Rutherford observed that MOST of the alpha particles went through the thin gold
foil without being deflected. What is indicated by this observation of Rutherford to
atoms?
a. The atom is completely a gaseous object consisted of extremely small particles.
b. The atom is so big and all its small particles are concentrated at the center.
c. The protons, electrons and neutrons are randomly distributed occupying the entire
space of the atom.
d. The volume of an atom is almost an empty space.

____18. The atomic masses of 63 Li and 73 Li are 6.0151 amu and 7.0160 amu, respectively.
If the average atomic mass of Li is 6.941 amu, what are the natural abundances of
these two isotopes?
a. 63 Li = 3.25 %, 73 Li =¿96.75 % c. 63 Li = 7.50 %, 73 Li =¿92.50 %
b. 63 Li = 5.50 %, 73 Li =¿94.50 % d. 63 Li = 9.25 %, 73 Li =¿90.75 %

____19. Which of the following ions has gained 3 electrons?

a. Sr2+ b. S2- c. Ga3+ d. P3-

____20. What sub – atomic particle stabilizes the nucleus of the atom by effectively
moderating the repulsive force among the protons in it?
a. Proton b. electron c, neutron d. positron

References:

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Chang, R. Chemistry.(2010). 5th ed. Mc Graw Hill Book Co.. N.Y.

Manahan, Stanley E. (1993) Fundamentals of Chemistry. London: Lewis.

Masterton and Hurley. (2004). Chemistry: Principles and Reactions. 5 th ed. Thomson
Learning, Inc.

Purdue University. (22002). Special Edition of General Chemistry. McGraw-Hill Primis

Custom Publishing.
http://www.cse.salford.ac.uk/physics/gsmcdonald/pp/PPLATOResources/h-flap/p8_1t.pdf
https://www.unf.edu/~michael.lufaso/chem2045/Chapter2.pdf
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/electronic-structure-of-atoms/history-of-
atomic-structure/a/daltons-atomic-theory-version-2
https://www.britannica.com/science/Rutherford-model
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q=thin+gold+foil+experiment&rlz=1C1RLNS_enPH872PH872&sxsrf=ALeKk000Khk1wlnzq1
QpHnMYB_RWxwlQfA:1597542915463&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjgh
fWPz57rAhUMEqYKHUJVDE0Q_AUoAXoECBQQAw&biw=1280&bih=610#imgrc=8Dppj5a
oUHteZM
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/electronic-structure-of-atoms/history-of-
atomic-structure/a/discovery-of-the-electron-and-nucleus
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4cGRjvEpp0
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/the-structure-of-the-atom/

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