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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Before going further and study Bohr’s model we will take a look at
what are atomic spectra?
What is spectra?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
• Spectra is an array of entities (such as light waves or particle) ordered in accordance with the
magnitudes of a common physical property (such as wavelength).
• Often the band of colours produced when sunlight is passed through a prism comprising
VIBGYOR.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What is the classification of Spectra?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What is the continuous Emission
ATOMIC Spectra? STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
What is the continuous Emission Spectra? STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
What is the Discontinuous Emission Spectra?STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What is the Discontinuous Absorption Spectra?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Hydrogen spectrum in detail.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What is Atomic Spectra of Hydrogen ?
7 –1
R = 1.097 × 10 m
Bohr proposed a model based on these findings. Next we will discuss that
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Hydrogen spectrum in detail.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Hydrogen spectrum
n=8 γ
n=7 γ β
n=6
δ γ β α
n=5 Pfund series I.R region (far zone)
δ γ β α
n=4 I.R region (mid zone)
γ β α Brackett series
n=3
α Paschen series I.R region (near zone)
β
n=2 1
Balmer series visible region 1 1
α = R Z2 –
λ 22 n2
n=1
Lyman series U.V.
CHEMISTRY Rydberg Balmer equation
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
1 1 3
⇒ = RZ2 – 1 = RZ2 For H-atom Z = 1
λ 1 4 4
4
⇒ λ = 911.5 1
3 R = 1.097 107 m–1
1 = 911.5 A
λ = 1216 A R
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
1 3
⇒ = RZ2 1 – 1 = RZ2 For H-atom Z = 1
λ 4 16 16
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Solution –RH Z2
E =
n2 For lowest energy transition in Balmer series
ΔE = E3 – E2 n1 = 2 and n2 = 3
1– 1 = RHZ2 1 – 1
ΔE = RHZ2 RH = 1312 kJ.mol–1
n22 n32 4 9
5 visible region indicates Balmer series
ΔE = 1312 × 36 = 182.22 kJ.mol–1
For 2 moles,
ΔE = 182.22 × 2 = 364.4 kJ
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
If we increase the energy emitted then the intensity of the radiation should
increase without having any effect on the wavelength or the frequency.
ATOMIC
Was this theory applicable STRUCTURE
in all cases?
Blackbody radiations and Photoelectric Effect.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
Was this theory applicable in all cases? STRUCTURE
Blackbody radiations and Photoelectric Effect.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
What are black body radiations STRUCTURE
and how were they studied?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are black body radiations and how were they studied?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Before understanding black body radiations we will define what is a Black body:-
A black body is an ideal object which can absorb all the radiation incident upon it and
once absorbed it can emit them as well. It is ideal absorber or ideal emitter.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are black body radiations and how were
ATOMIC they studied?
STRUCTURE
Blackbody Radiation Experiment
As the temperature of the object increased, the wave
length corresponding to which observed intensity at
maximum, decreases.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What is Wein’s displacement law?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Wein’s Displacement Law states that the wavelength distribution peaks at a value that is inversely
proportional a to the temperature i.e Wavelength X Frequency = Constant
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
What is photo electric effect? STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What were the observations of photo electric effect?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1. No electron is ejected if the incident frequency, n, is less than
certain minimum value n0.
3. When n > n0, howsoever low the intensity is, ejection is observed.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Were these findings justifying Maxwell’s theory?
Quantum Theory
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
These findings again contradict Maxwell’s theory. To justify these findings Max Von Planck gave
his Quantum Theory which is one of the most important theories of modern science.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
Now, Let’s discuss a problem STRUCTURE
Problem:
At 1500K the maximum wavelength of radiation that an object emits out is 7000A°. What will
be the maximum wavelength if radiation if the T is increased to 3000K.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
Now, Let’s discuss a problem STRUCTURE
Problem
At 1500K the maximum wavelength of radiation that an object emits out is 7000A°. What will
be the maximum wavelength if radiation if the T is increased to 3000K.
Solution
λ max T = constant
λ 1 T1 = λ 2 T2
λ 2 = 3500 A°
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Structure of atom.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What is matter ?
Anything that has mass, occupies space and which can be perceived by any of our senses is
called matter. e.g- Chalk, Book, Table..
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Structure of atom.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What is an atom
An atom is considered as the smallest indivisible particle of matter
which can participate in a chemical reaction.
First explanation was given by
Based upon an important property
“atomic mass”
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory ?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory
1) Atom is considered as hard, dense and smallest indivisible particle of
matter
2) Each element consists of a unique kind of atoms and have identical mass
H2 molecule
The same reaction will take place for all the sodium atoms
4) All the atoms of a given element having same atomic mass have Identical
Properties,
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory ?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Postulates Dalton’s of atomic theory
5). Compounds of different elements are formed when atoms of
different elements combine in a fixed ratio of whole numbers
Chlorine Sodium
Laws of chemical
combination
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic theory.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic theory
1. According to Dalton’s theory all Hydrogen atoms must have same atomic masses but the
discovery of isotopes discarded his theory.
Compounds of different elements are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a
fixed ratio of whole numbers but this is not true in the case of “Non Stoichiometric
Compounds”
e.g- Fe0.93O
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic theory.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic theory
3. According to Dalton’s atomic theory atom was Indivisible but atom was found to be
divisible when sub atomic particles were discovered.
With advance in technology as of today we know that atom is further subdivided. We have
35 sub atomic particles. Among which fundamental particles are:
A………….
B………….
C………….
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic theory.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic theory
• Isotopes: Elements with same atomic number(Z) but with different mass number (A) are
called isotopes.
• Fe0.93O. It is a mixture of FeO and Fe2O3. In Fe0.93O we may have small proportion of FeO
and Fe2O3which leads to the empirical formula of Fe0.93O. FeO and Fe2O3 individually do
not violate the theory individually.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
How were Sub Atomic particlesSTRUCTURE
discovered?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Explain discovery of electron- study of cathode rays?
ATOMIC
Discovery of Electron
STRUCTURE
Atom was found to be divisible. Limitation of Dalton’s Theory
Vacuum pump
Cathode (–) Anode (+)
Cathode rays
z
Battery
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Explain discovery of electron- study of cathode rays?
ATOMIC
Cathode Ray Experiment STRUCTURE
The apparatus used in this experiment cylindrical glass tube, William
Crookes designed the tube so it is called as Crooke’s tube
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Cathode Rays and Explain them.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Properties of cathode rays
Cathode rays travels in a straight line
Cathode rays are made up of particle
Cathode rays are made of negative charged particle
Cathode rays are deflected by electric field and magnetic field
Cathode rays show heating effect
Cathode rays ionize the gases through which they travel
Cathode rays produces x rays on hitting a metallic target
Source of cathode rays
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Cathode Rays and Explain them.
ATOMIC
Properties of Cathode Rays STRUCTURE
4) Cathode rays are deflected towards magnet
Battery
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Cathode Rays.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Properties of Cathode Rays
CHEMISTRY Battery
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Cathode Rays and Explain them.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
6) Cathode rays ionize the gases through which they travel.
Cathode Anode
holes in cathode
e+–
e–
+ z
e+–
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Determine the value of e/m.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Determination of e/m value
-CHEMISTRY
+ Fluorescent screen
Atomic Structure
Determine the value of e/m.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Determination of e/m value
7) When this experiment was conducted in a dark room cathode
rays produces X rays on hitting a metallic target
The ray hits at a point ‘Y’ and its starts glowing
Cathode rays deflect towards the positive electrodeThus hitting the screen
at a point say ‘X’
Cathode rays deflect towards magnet ,Thus hitting at a point say ‘Z’
e Charge
m mass
1
Note : Mass of electron is th
1837
the mass of an H atom.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Explain discovery of electron- study of Anode rays?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Discovery of Anode Rays
Electron
Positively charged particle ??
??
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Explain discovery of electron- study of Anode rays?
ZnS screen
CHEMISTRY Battery
Atomic Structure
Explain discovery of electron- study of Anode rays?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
But the question is are they actually coming from anode ??
Anode rays are not produced by the anode rather they are produced by
the Ions of the gas, which are produced when cathode rays hits the gaseous atom.
ZnS screen
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Anode Rays and explain them.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Properties of anode rays
Anode rays travels in a straight line
Anode rays are made of particle
Anode rays are made of positive charged particle
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Anode Rays and explain them.
Shadow
Gas at low pressure
(10-2 – 10-3 mm)
CHEMISTRY Battery
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Anode Rays and explain them.
Properties of anode raysATOMIC STRUCTURE
Battery
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Anode Rays and explain them.
Anode (+)
Cathode (-)
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Anode Rays and explain them.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
4) Anode rays are deflected towards magnet
Battery
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Properties of Anode Rays and explain them.
ATOMIC
5) Anode rays show heating effect STRUCTURE
If a metal foil is placed in It’s temperature increases
the path of anode rays and it becomes hot
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Discovery of Proton and Neutron
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Discovery of Proton and Neutron
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Conclusion
Anode rays are made of positive charge particles “e”
e = + 1.6 × 10-19 C
1.6 × 10-19 C
mass =
9.58 × 104 C/g
= 1.67 × 10-24 g
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Discovery of Proton and Neutron
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Discovery of Neutron
Discovered by James Chadwick
9 4 12 1
Be + He C + n
4 2 6 0
neutron
Summarization
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes ,Isobars and isotones .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atomic number (Z) and mass number (A)
Z = No. of proton = No. of electron in a neutral atom
A = Sum of proton and neutron Mass number Y
A Element
Z =p = e n = A–P Atomic Number X
A = P+n = A–Z
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes ,Isobars and isotones .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Isotopes
Elements with same atomic number(Z) but with different mass number (A)
are called isotopes. due to difference in the no of neutron
35 37
e.g. Cl Cl
17 17
Isotopes
35
37
Relative abundance of Cl and Cl are 75% and 25% respectively.
17 17
75 25
Average atomic mass = 35 + 100 37 = 35.5
100
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes ,Isobars and isotones .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Is there any difference between mass number
and atomic mass ??
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Isotopes
E.g. 16 18 Used for investigating
O and O Radioactive
8 8 reaction mechanism
12 14 14
C C and C Radioactive
6 , 6 6
Elements with same mass number(A) but with different atomic number (Z)
are called isobars.
E.g. 40 40
Ar and Ca
18 20
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes ,Isobars and isotones .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Isotones
Elements with same number of neutrons are called isotones.
e.g. 40 37
Ca and Cl
20 17
Number of
= A - Z = 20 20
neutrons
e.g.
23 24
Na and Mg
11 12
Number of
= A - Z = 12 12
neutrons
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Isoelectronic Species
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Isoelectronic Species
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Isoelectronic Species
Elements or ions which have same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes ,Isobars and isotones .
Problem 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The mass to charge ratio for A+ is 1.97 10–7 kg /C. Find the mass of A.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes ,Isobars and isotones .
Problem 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The mass to charge ratio for A+ is 1.97 10–7 kg /C. Find the mass of A.
Given
m
= 1.97 10–7 kg /C
e
m = 1.97 10–7 1.6 10–19 kg
m = 1.97 1.6 10–26 kg
m = 3.152 10–26 kg
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
(e/m) p (ep/mp)
=
(e/m) e (ee/me)
ee = ep
me 1
=
mp 1836
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Problem a) Calculate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in 80 .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE 35 Br
b) The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in a species are
equal to 18, 16 and 16 respectively. Assign with proper Symbol.
Solution (b)
Mass number(A) = neutrons +
Number of protons = 16 Z = 16 32 2– protons = 16+16 = 32
S
Number of neutrons = 16 16
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
N - atom 7 7
Ca - ion 20 20
O - atom 16 8
Bromide ion 35 45 36
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
N - atom 14 7 7 7 7
Ca - ion 40 20 20 20 18
O - atom 16 8 8 8 8
Bromide ion 80 35 35 45 36
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
After the discovery of these particles inside the atom, many models
were proposed based on different set of assumptions. We will take a
journey through the history of atom.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
Define Thomson's Model STRUCTURE
and Its Limitations.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
Define Thomson's Model STRUCTURE
and Its Limitations.
In 1898 Thomson gave his model of atom known as
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model of Atom which is also
known as Watermelon model, Raisin pudding model,
Chocochip cookie model .
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
Define Thomson's Model STRUCTURE
and Its Limitations.
• This model of atom could not explain Rutherford’s experiment and atomic spectrum
which will be discussed later
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Ernest Rutherford
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Rutherford’s Model of an Atom and its observations .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Rutherford’s alpha particles Scattering Experiment
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Rutherford’s Model of an Atom and its observations .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Rutherford’s alpha particles Scattering Experiment
• Alpha-scattering experiment -the first definitive
experiment to establish the basic structure of atom,
specially the discovery of nucleus containing protons
and neutrons.
• To check the conclusions of Thomson’s model
Rutherford bombarded a thin sheet of Gold by fast
moving alpha particles coming from a radioactive
source and observed their deviations after passing
through the foil.
• Alpha-particles are positively charged helium nuclei
with atomic mass 4 a.m.u.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Rutherford’s Model of an Atom and its observations .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Why only Gold foil was used Why not any other Element ?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Why only Gold foil was used Why not any other Element ?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• Gold is a heavy metal
• Gold is malleable i.e. can change shape easily on
hammering
• When fast moving ∝ particles strikes on gold foil, scattering
can be observed
• easily due to its heavy mass
• Deflection of ∝ particles observed will be very less due to its
light mass
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What were the conclusions from Rutherford Model?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• Most of the space inside an atom is empty.
• As some particles deviated and alpha particles being positively charged
helium nuclei, can be deviated by a positive charge, so there must be some
positively charged region in the atom.
• As only a few particles deviated, it was concluded that the positively charged
region was very small as compared to the atom that is the positive charge of
the atom is concentrated in a very small space called “The Nucleus”. The
order of diameter of a nucleus is 10-15 m and that of an atom is about 10-10m.
• The biggest achievement of the model was the discovery of the nucleus.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What were the conclusions from Rutherford Model?
“Like planets revolved around the sun in solar system Similarly e– revolves around
nucleus”
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What were the conclusions from Rutherford Model?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Rutherford’s atomic model
• An atom consists of the tiny positively charged nucleus at
its centre.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model
• It says nothing about the structure of atom , i.e. how the electrons are distributed
around the nucleus and their energies
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
• Quantum Theory
• Electromagnetic Radiations
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
What are Electro magnetic STRUCTURE
Radiations?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are Electro magnetic Radiations?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Electromagnetic Radiation:
(E) ×(B)
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are Characteristics of Transverse Waves?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• Electromagnetic Radiations are waves which are formed as a result of oscillating
magnetic and electric fields which are perpendicular to each other and both are
perpendicular to direction of motion.
• Light has wave characteristics with maxima and minima as shown in the figure.
• These waves can be produced by a charged particle moving in magnetic field.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
2. Frequency, v : The number of waves passing through a point in space in 1 second. Its units
are s-1 or Hertz (Hz). λ
4. Amplitude: The maximum displacement from the mean position or the axis.
5. Wave Number: The number of waves per unit length. This is reciprocal of wavelength (1/λ)
with unit m-1.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
λ = 220 m
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ν = 1/λ
ν =1/5800 × 10–10 = 1/58 × 10–8
ν = 1.7 × 106 m–1
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
So What is a Electromagnetic STRUCTURE
Spectrum?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
So What is a Electromagnetic STRUCTURE
Spectrum?
When all the electromagnetic radiations are arranged in increasing order of wavelength or
decreasing frequency the band of radiations obtained is termed as electromagnetic
spectrum.
The wavelength increase in the order
Gamma rays < X – rays < UV rays < Visible < Infrared < Microwaves < Radio waves
< Long RadioWaves
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Now , We will discuss Quantum Theory
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What is Planck’s Quantum Theory?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Planck’s Quantum Theory
Energy is emitted in form of radiations from a source in a discontinuous manner that is in form
of packets of energy.
And energy of each packet depends on the frequency of radiation. These packets are called
“Quantum of energy”.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What are the properties of Quantum of Energy?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the properties of Quantum of Energy?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Properties of Quantum of Energy
At a time, only one quantum can be supplied to one electron or any other particle.
One Quantum cannot be divided or distributed.
An electron can absorb one packet at a time and get excited. And the energy of a
Quantum increases with frequency.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the properties of Quantum of Energy?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Properties of Quantum of Energy
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Now Let’s solve some problems
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Solution
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
How can we explain Blackbody radiations and PE Effect on the basis of this theory?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Blackbody radiations
Temperature increases => Energy emitted increases => Increase in the frequency of
the emitted radiations
Basically frequency affects the energy of one quantum or photon and due to
increase in number of Quanta emitted the intensity increases.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect STRUCTURE
To make ejection possible the energy per Quantum should be increased by increasing
frequency. And for every metal there is a minimum value of frequency at which ejection
starts which is called “Threshold Frequency” represented by νo
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What are the observations?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
WhatATOMIC STRUCTURE
are the observations?
When ν < ν0 then energy of one quantum is insufficient, ejection does not take place
When ν = ν0 then ejection just takes place and electrons don’t have any kinetic energy
When ν > ν0 then every ejected electron possesses kinetic energy that is the excess energy of a
quantum gets converted into kinetic energy of the electron.
When ν > ν0, then on increasing the intensity the number of quanta incident increases thereby
increasing the number of photoelectrons ejected.
The Threshold energy required for emission is called “Work Function” (f) that is “hνo”.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
How can we explain Photoelectric effect mathematically?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
How can we explain Photoelectric effect mathematically?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
By energy balance:
The Kinetic energy of electron varies linearly with the incident frequency .
Einstein gave this equation of photoelectric effect and he concluded that Light has particle like
properties as well.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What was the conclusion from this theory?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What was the conclusion from this theory?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
We can conclude that according to Maxwell, Light is a wave but according to modern
theory it may also have particle like properties, as it contains photons each with
discrete amount of energy.
Therefore, Light has both the properties: Wave and Particle.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What ATOMIC
are the postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model?
STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model
(1)
Electron revolves around the nucleus in circular
orbits called as shells or energy levels.
These are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4….. etc., or
designated as K, L, M, N…
These orbits are associated with definite energies.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model
3. Energy of the shells is fixed for a given atom and these shells are called stationary energy
level i.e., an atom will not lose or gain energy when it is present in a shell.
4. When electrons gain energy it gets excited to higher energy level and when it gets de-excited
it loses energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation and comes down to lower energy level.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model
5. Only those orbits are permitted in which the angular momentum of the electron is a whole
number multiple of h/2π.
Like energy, angular momentum of the electrons in an atom is also quantized.
mvr = nh/2π
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model
i.e. if the energy of the 1st orbit is E1 and that of 2nd orbit is E2, then => E2 > E1
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What are the postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Study of Bohr’s Model Mathematically
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Ionization Energy.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Concept of Induction radiation .
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Concept of Induction radiation .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Concept of Induced Radiation
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
What were the limitations of Bohr’s Model?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Limitation of Bohr’s Model of H-atom
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What were the limitations of Bohr’s Model?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What were the limitations of Bohr’s Model?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
h
λdb = p
p= Linear momentum = mv
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define de Broglie’s Matter-Wave Duality Hypothesis.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
de Broglie’s Matter-Wave Duality Hypothesis
de Broglie found wavelength of a particle is associated with the linear momentum of that
particle.
h p = Linear momentum = mv
λdb =
p
According to Planck light has both Similarly matter
wave and particle nature can also have wave-particle duality
Late Davisson and Germer did electron diffraction experiment on Ni. Crystal and
they proved that electron can have wave nature
It means de Broglie wavelength for that ball For that reason we cannot see
is negligible to the radius ofCHEMISTRY
the ball the wavelength of the ball
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define DeBroglie's Model and What are applications of
DeBroglie's Model ?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define DeBroglie's Model and What are applications of DeBroglie's Model ?
L = 3
2
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define DeBroglie's Model and What are applications of DeBroglie's Model ?
One wavelength
n = 2
Two wavelengths
Likewise electrons rotate in an orbit like wave
n = 3 and the wave ends where it begins
Three wavelengths
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define DeBroglie's Model and What are applications of DeBroglie's Model ?
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define DeBroglie's Model and What are applications of DeBroglie's Model ?
de Broglie wavelength,
λdb = h
P
de Broglie considered p = √ 2meV0
h electron as wave
λdb =
√ 2meV0
In a guitar the strings are confined between points guitar. When guitarist plays
guitar he holds the string at some point and the strings start vibrating
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Solution
here we are accelerating an electron
We know p = mv
so here the charge is ‘e’
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Problem ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of Vo volts. Find the
de Broglie wavelengths associated with the electron.
Solution
Energy gained by an e– on being accelerated through a potential difference of V
volts
eV0 = 1 mv
2
2
2 2
⇒ eV0 = m 2m
v
p2
⇒ eV0 =
2m
⇒ p=
√ 2meV0
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define HeisenBerg’s
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Uncertainty Principle.
“Particle Waves”
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
“It is impossible to determine the position and momentum of an electron
simultaneously and accurately.”
Viewing electrons and other particles as “Particle Waves” which are highly
de-localised changes the way we see universe.
Instead of things having exact location and motion they are distributed in some region in space.
Heisenberg proposed that locating an electron and determining its velocity,
both cannot be done simultaneously and accurately because of the wave characteristic of electron.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Calculate the uncertainty in position assuming uncertainty in momentum within
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
0.1% for: (a) a tennis ball weighing 0.2 kg and moving with a velocity of 10 m/s.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Δv ≥
h = 6.626 10–34
⇒
4πm Δx 4 3.14 10–30 10–11
6.626
12.28
= 107 m/s
(a) A tennis ball weighing 0.2 kg and moving with a velocity of 10 m/s
(b) An electron moving in an atom with a velocity of 2 106
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Δx ≥
h
= 6.626 10–34
⇒ 4πm Δv 4 3.14 0.2 0.01
∴Uncertainty in position = 2.5 10-32 m
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
⇒ Δx ≥
h 6.626 10–34
=
4πm Δv 4 3.14 10–30 2 103
Δ x = 250 A
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define modern quantum mechanical model of atom.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define modern quantum mechanical model of atom.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Modern Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
P (x,y)
Schrodinger : Wave equation Treat electron as
r sin θ
r
⇓ wave. θ
What is ψ O
To Analyse electron r cos θ
ψ (psi) :- It’s a representation of electron as a wave Representation of
ψ (x,y,z) Spherical coordinate ψ (r,θ, φ) a point in terms
of r and θ
ψ :- Gives Full (probable)information about the
electron like: For x = cos θ
y = sin θ
Energy of electron
Angular momentum of electron
Position of electronCHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Orbit and difference between Orbit and Orbital.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Orbit and difference between Orbit and Orbital.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Orbital
An orbital is region around the nucleus where maximum probability of
finding the electron. If the electron density is
Higher in some region, we say
Probability should be 95% or 0.95 Probability of finding e– will be higher
By solving Schrodinger equation we get :-
Quantum number
n – Principal quantum numbers
l – Azimuthal / Angular quantum number.
ml – Magnetic quantum number.
Probability density :
|ψ|2 orbital can be related like electron
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Orbit and difference between Orbit and Orbital.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
What is the difference between Orbit and Orbital
Orbit Orbital
Circular path around the It is the 3D region around the nucleus in
nucleus in which the Electron which e– is present as wave.
moves.
Characterise by the orbital It characterise by ‘n’ ‘l’ ‘m’
No ‘n’
No real meaning Represents probability of
finding electron (|ψ|2)
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Energy of electron
Momentum of electron
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define types of Quantum Numbers.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define types of Quantum Numbers.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define types of Quantum Numbers.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define types of Quantum Numbers.
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
We calculate all the possible magnetic field associated to electron
Total values = 2l + 1
ml = – l to +l
Sub shell (l) ml
s(0) 0
p(1) –1, 0, +1
d(2) –2,–1, 0, +1, +2
f(3) –3, –2,–1, 0, +1, +2, +3
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define types of Quantum Numbers.
Total values = 2l + 1
ml = – l to +l
Sub shell (l) ml
s(0) 0
p(1) –1, 0, +1
d(2) –2,–1, 0, +1, +2
f(3) –3, –2,–1, 0, +1, +2, +3
It will show possible orientation of orbitals in
a sub shell
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
1
s = – anticlockwise spin/ down-spin
2
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define types of Quantum Numbers.
1 d
If ms = +
2
or
1
ms = –
2
An orbital can have a maximum of two electrons
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
Define types of Quantum Numbers. STRUCTURE
Capacity of Subshell Orbital
s 2 1
p 6 3
d 10 5
f 14 7
Q. No. Range
n 1, 2, 3, …
l 0 to n–1 n values
ml –l to +l 2l + 1 values (No. of orbitals)
ms –1/2 to +1/2 2 values
l=0 s - subshell S - orbital
l=1 p - subshell Px, Py & Pz - orbital
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
y
z
Spherical Subshell
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
x y
Pz z
Py x
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC
What is Orientation of subshells 3. d –double dumbell (ml = +2, +1, 0, -1, -2)
STRUCTURE
y z 0 is conventionally
y
explained as dz2
If x, y directions are
considered
x z x
x y
dx2 – dy2 dz2
ml = +2 ml = 0
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Solution
a) 3p :- n = 3 (3, 1, 1, +1/2) or (3, 1, 1, –1/2)
l=1
( 3, 1, 0, +1/2) or ( 3, 1, 0, –1/2)
ml = -1, o, +1
1 1 (3, 1, –1, +1/2) or (3, 1, –1, –1/2)
ms = + or –
2 2
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ii) n = 4 l = 0 ii) n = 3 l = 2
4s 3d
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
a) 2 42 = 32
b) 14
c) 2
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define AufBau’s Principle.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Sub shell :- For a given shell the energy of different sub shell increases as the
value of ‘l’ increases.
ns np nd nf (for multi electronic species)
2s 2p 2p = 2+1= 3
Values are same
3s = 3+0= 3
3s 3p 3d 3p = 3+1= 4
3d = 3+2= 5 4s will be filled
4s 4p 4d 4f before 3d
4s = 4+0= 4
5s 5p 5d 5f 5g 4p = 4+1= 5
4d = 4+2= 6 5s will be filled
6s 6p 6d 6f 4f = 4+3= 7 after 4p and then 4d
7s 7p 5s = 5+0= 5 After 4d, 5p will
5p = 5+1= 6 be filled
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
AufBauATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define AufBau’s Principle.
principle : (Building – up)
How the configuration
of an atom is built
1s
We fill the electron
2s 2p on the basis of (n + l)
3s 3p 3d Lower the value of ‘n’
electrons are filled first
4s 4p 4d 4f
Values of n + l is less, energy
5s 5p 5d 5f 5g is lower, will fill e– first
According to this principle electron are added progressively to the various orbitals
is their order of increasing energy starting with the lowest energy.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Important Points
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Pauli’s Rule.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
1
A) n = 2, l = 1, ml = + 1, ms = + 2
1
B) n = 2, l = 1, ml = + 1 ms = – 2
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Electrons do not pair until all the orbitals are filled at least once, so that
electrons stay as far way from each other as possible and minimise inter
electronic repulsion.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity.
[Actual]
Half Filled Stability
It is feasible, because difference in
Exchange energy energy level of 3d and 4s is small
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Configuration of Ions.
.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
O is gaining two electrons
Configuration of Ions
those will add up in outermost p-orbital
Two types of ions
1) Cation :- By the loss of e in atom
2) Anion :- By the gain of e in atom
Both loss / gain will take place in valence shell.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Magnetic moment of the ions.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Problem
What is the magnetic moment for Fe2+, Fe3+ and Ni2+ ?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
μB = √ 4 (4+2) = √ 24 ∼ 5 BM
μB = √ 5 (5+2) = √ 35 ∼ 6 BM
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC Curves
Define Radial Probability STRUCTURE
and probability of
finding a electron.
Let’s see where the electrons
are present inside the atom
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Radial Probability Curves and probability of finding a electron.
Where ψ(r) is the radial component & ψ(θ ,φ) is the angular component
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Radial Probability Curves and probability of finding a electron.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Radial Probability Curves and probability of finding a electron.
dr
r
dv = (4π r2) dr
Probability of finding an electron in a small shell of thickness ‘dr’ is defined as
dP = |ψ|2 dv
= |ψ|2 4π r2 dr
Total probability will be
p R2
P =o ∫ dP = R1∫ |ψ|2 4π r2 dr
R2
P = 1∫ P(r) dr
R
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Probability Distribution Curves.
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Probability Distribution Curves.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Radial Probability Distribution Function Curve
2 2
P1s (r) r = 0.529 nz = a0 nz
r
r = ROMP = radius of maximum probability
= 0.529 A0 = a0 (Bohr’s radius)
Radial node
P2s (r) Here probability of finding
electron is zero
r
r = ROMP = 4a0 CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Define Probability Distribution Curves.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Radial Probability Distribution Function Curve
Initially | | 2 is decreasing bur r2 is increasing At nucleus r =0, so P(r) = o
but as r increases | | 2 decreases exponentially so graph will start form the origin
so the overall curve tends to become zero
(ROMP)1s < (ROMP)2s
r r r
Radial node
P3d(r) P4d (r)
r r
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Nodes and Nodal Planes
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Nodes and Nodal Planes
Nodes Radial node S orbitals do not have any nodal plane
Nodes
Angular node / planar node
Angular nodes:
No of nodal planes = l (azimuthal Q.N.)
xz- plane
The plane is passing between the lobes of py orbital
py-orbital where the probability of finding the electron is zero
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Nodes and Nodal Planes
Nodes d orbital For d orbital l = 2 planes
So for dwill
xy, dhave
yz andtwo
dxz nodal
x are combination of the remaining axis
with the axes of the orbital
y
dxy orbital
For dxy orbital nodal planes are xz and yz
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Nodes and Nodal Planes
Nodes
x
x=y
Nodal plane Nodal Cone
y
Nodal plane
Nodal Cone
x = -y
d x2 – y2 orbital d z2 orbital
2 nodal planes 2 nodal planes
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Define Nodes and Nodal Planes
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
4f 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
3
Problem 1 ATOMIC
1 2 r STRUCTURE
–
r
a
ψ2s = a0 2– a e 0
4 √ 2π 0
Where a0 is the Bohr radius (r0 : radius / distance from nucleus). Find the
location of radial node ?
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
3
Problem 1 ATOMIC
1 2 r STRUCTURE
–
r
a
ψ2s = a0 2– a e 0
4 √ 2π 0
Where a0 is the Bohr radius (r0 : radius / distance from nucleus). Find the
location of radial node ?
Solution To have the radial node, ψ2s = 0
r
∴ 2– = 0 ⇒ r = 2a0
a0
– r
e a0 Can not be zero , because it is zero when r = ∞
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Problem: ATOMIC
For a quadratic equation STRUCTURE
7r 2
12 – r
a0 + a0 = 0
CHEMISTRY
Atomic Structure
Problem: ATOMIC
For a quadratic equation STRUCTURE
7r 2
12 – r
a0 + a0 = 0 Find the location of radial nodes ?
r
Solution Let’s a = x
0
2
x – 7x + 12 = 0
⇒ (x – 4)(x – 3) = 0
(x – 4) = 0 and (x – 3) = 0
r ⇒ r
⇒
a0 = 4 a0 = 3
⇒ r = 4a0 ⇒ r = 3a0
CHEMISTRY