XII Physics Vol 2 EM WWW - Tntextbooks.in 1

UNIT
8 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
All of physics is either impossible or trivial. It is impossible until you understand it, and then it becomes trivial
– Ernest Rutherford
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this unit, the students are exposed to

• electric discharge through the gases
• determination of specific charge by J.J. Thomson experiment
• determination of electronic charge by Millikan’s oil drop experiment
• atom models – J.J. Thomson and Rutherford
• Bohr atom model and hydrogen atom
• atomic spectrum and hydrogen spectrum
• structure and properties of nucleus
• various classification of nuclei based on atomic and mass number
• mass defect and binding energy
• relation between stability and binding energy curve
• alpha, beta and gamma decay
• law of radioactive decay
• nuclear fission and fusion
• elementary ideas of nuclear reactors
• qualitative idea of elementary particles
8.1 In earlier classes, we have studied that

INTRODUCTION anything which occupies space is called
matter. Matter can be classified into solids,
Earth
liquids and gases. In our daily life, we use
water for drinking, petrol for vehicles,
Atom
Apple we inhale oxygen, stainless steel vessels
Same size
for cooking, etc. Experiences tell us that
Same size behaviour of one material is not same
Atom
as another, this means that the physical
Atom Apple
Apple Earth and chemical properties are different for
different materials. In order to understand
Figure 8.1 Comparision of size of an atom
with that of an apple and comparision of this, we need to know the fundamental
size of an apple with that of the Earth constituents of materials.
138
UNIT-8(XII-Physics_Vol-2).indd 138 8/3/2019 4:39:07 PM

When an object is divided repeatedly, But by special arrangement, one can make a
the process of division could not be done gas to conduct electricity.
beyond a certain stage in a similar way and A simple and convenient device used
we end up with a small speck. This small to study the conduction of electricity
speck was defined as an atom. The word through gases is known as gas discharge
atom in Greek means ‘without division tube. The arrangement of discharge tube
or indivisible’. The size of an atom is is shown in Figure 8.2. It consists of a long
very very small. For an example, the size closed glass tube (of length nearly 50 cm
of hydrogen atom (simplest among other and diameter of 4 cm) inside of which
atoms) is arround 10 –10 m. An American the gas in pure form is filled usually. The
Physicist Richard P. Feynman said that small opening in the tube is connected to
if the atom becomes the size of an apple, a high vacuum pump and a low-pressure
then the apple becomes the size of the gauge. This tube is fitted with two metallic
earth as shown in Figure 8.1. Such a small plates known as electrodes which are
entity is an atom. connected to secondary of an induction
In this unit, we first discuss the theoretical coil. The electrode connected to positive
models of atom to understand its structure. of secondary is known as anode and the
The Bohr atom model is more successful than electrode to the negative of the secondary
J. J. Thomson and Rutherford atom models. is cathode. The potential of secondary is
It explained many unsolved issues in those maintained about 50 kV.
days and also gave better understanding of
chemistry.
Later, scientists observed that even the atom
is not the fundamental entity. It consists of
electrons and nucleus. Around 1930, scientists
discovered that nucleus is also made of proton
and neutron. Further research discovered that
even the proton and neutron are made up of (a)
fundamental entities known as quarks.
In this context, the remaining part of this High
potential difference
unit is written to understand the structure —
and basic properties of nucleus. Further how
+
the nuclear energy is produced and utilized
are discussed.
C A
8.2 Gas
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
THROUGH GASES (b)
Gases at normal atmospheric pressure are Figure 8.2 Discharge tube (a) real picture
poor conductors of electricity because they (b) schematic diagram
do not have free electrons for conduction.
Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics 139

Suppose the pressure of the gas in discharge 8.2.1 Determination of specific
tube is reduced to around 110 mm of Hg using e
charge   of an electron –
vacuum pump, it is observed that no discharge  m
takes place. When the pressure is kept near 100 Thomson’s experiment
mm of Hg, the discharge of electricity through Thomson’s experiment is considered as
the tube takes place. Consequently, irregular one among the landmark experiments for the
streaks of light appear and also crackling sound birth of modern physics. In 1887, J. J. Thomson
is produced. When the pressure is reduced to made remarkable improvement in the scope
the order of 10 mm of Hg, a luminous column of study of gases in discharge tubes. In the
known as positive column is formed from presence of electric and magnetic fields, the
anode to cathode. cathode rays are deflected. By the variation of
When the pressure reaches to around electric and magnetic fields, mass normalized
0.01 mm of Hg, positive column disappears. charge or the specific charge (charge per unit
At this time, a dark space is formed between mass) of the cathode rays is measured.
anode and cathode which is often called
Deflecting
Crooke’s dark space and the walls of the plates
Fluorescent screen
tube appear with green colour. At this stage, A

S
+
P
C
some invisible rays emanate from cathode _
N
O
called cathode rays, which are later found Battery

P'
High voltage
be a beam of electrons. battery
Properties of cathode rays Magnet
(1) Cathode rays possess energy and

momentum and travel in a straight line with Figure 8.3 Arrangement of J.J. Thomson
experiment to determine the specific
high speed of the order of 107m s-1. It can
charge of an electron
be deflected by application of electric and
magnetic fields. The direction of deflection
The arrangement of J. J. Thomson’s
indicates that they are negatively charged
experiment is shown in Figure 8.3. A
particles.
highly evacuated discharge tube is used and
(2) When the cathode rays are allowed
cathode rays (electron beam) produced at
to fall on matter, they produce heat. They
cathode are attracted towards anode disc A.
affect the photographic plates and also
Anode disc is made with pin hole in order
produce fluorescence when they fall on
to allow only a narrow beam of cathode
certain crystals and minerals.
rays. These cathode rays are now allowed
(3) When the cathode rays fall on a
to pass through the parallel metal plates,
material of high atomic weight, x-rays are
maintained at high voltage as shown in
produced.
Figure 8.3. Further, this gas discharge tube
(4) Cathode rays ionize the gas through
is kept in between pole pieces of magnet
which they pass.
such that both electric and magnetic fields
(5) The speed of cathode rays is up to
th are perpendicular to each other. When
 1 
  of the speed of light. the cathode rays strike the screen, they
10 
produce scintillation and hence bright spot
140 Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics

is observed. This is achieved by coating the 2
screen with zinc sulphide. eV = 1 mυ2 ⇒ e = υ

2 m 2V
(i) Determination of velocity of cathode Substituting the value of velocity from
rays equation (8.1), we get
e = 1 E 2 (8.2)
m 2V B 2
Substituting the values of E, B and V, the
S
specific charge can be determined as
+ e = 1.7 ×1011 C kg −1
e– E FE B v m
FB
_
(iii)
Deflection of charge only due to
uniform electric field
N When the magnetic field is turned off,
the deflection is only due to electric field.
The deflection in vertical direction is due to
the electric force.
Figure 8.4 Electric force balancing the
magnetic force – the path of electron Fe = eE (8.3)
beam is a straight line
Let m be the mass of the electron and by
For a fixed electric field between the applying Newton’s second law of motion,
plates, the magnetic field is adjusted such acceleration of the electron is
that the cathode rays (electron beam) strike
at the original position O (Figure 8.3). This ae = 1 Fe (8.4)
m
means that the magnitude of electric force is
balanced by the magnitude of force due to Substituting equation (8.4) in equation
magnetic field as shown in Figure 8.4. Let e (8.3),
be the charge of the cathode rays, then
eE = eB υ
ae = 1 eE = e E
m m
⇒ υ = E (8.1)
B
+
(ii) Determination of specific charge y
y´
Since the cathode rays (electron beam) e–
are accelerated from cathode to anode, the E

_
potential energy of the electron beam at the
l
cathode is converted into kinetic energy of
Screen
the electron beam at the anode. Let V be
the potential difference between anode and Figure 8.5 Deviation of path by applying
cathode, then the potential energy is eV. uniform electric field
Then from law of conservation of energy,

Let y be the deviation produced from (iv) Deflection of charge only due to
original position on the screen as shown uniform magnetic field
in Figure 8.5. Let the initial upward Suppose that the electric field is switched
velocity of cathode ray be u = 0 before off and only the magnetic field is switched
entering the parallel electric plates. Let on. Now the deflection occurs only due
t be the time taken by the cathode rays to magnetic field. The force experienced
to travel in electric field. Let l be the by the electron in uniform magnetic field
length of one of the plates, then the time applied perpendicular to its path is
taken is
Fm = e υB (in magnitude)
t= l (8.5) Since this force provides the centripetal
υ
force, the electron beam undergoes a semi-
Hence, the deflection yʹ of cathode rays
circular path. Therefore, we can equate Fm to
is (note: u = 0 and ae = e E ) 2
m centripetal force mυ .
R
y ′ = ut + 1 at 2 ⇒ y ′ = ut + 1 ae t 2
2 2 2
   
2 Fm = e υB = m υ
= 1  e E  l  R
2  m  υ  where v is the velocity of electron beam
2 2 at the point where it enters the magnetic
y′ = 1 e l B (8.6) field and R is the radius of the circular path
2m E
traversed by the electron beam.
Therefore, the deflection y on the screen
is eB = m υ ⇒ e = υ (8.9)
R m BR
y ∝ y′ ⇒ y = C y′
Further, substituting equation (8.1) in
where C is proportionality constant
equation (8.10), we get
which depends on the geometry of the
discharge tube and substituting yʹ value in e = E (8.10)
equation 8.6, we get m B2R
2 2 By knowing the values of electric field,
y =C1 e l B (8.7)
2m E magnetic field and the radius of circular
path, the value of specific charge  e  can
Rearranging equation (8.7) as  m
be calculated, which is also consistant with
e = 2 yE (8.8)
other two methods.
m Cl 2 B 2
Substituting the values on RHS, the The specific charge is

value of specific charge is calculated as Note independent of
e = 1.7 × 1011 C kg −1 (a) gas used
m (b) nature of the electrodes

8.2.2 Determination of These two parallel plates are enclosed in a
charge of an electron – chamber with glass walls. Further, plates A
Millikan’s oil drop experiment and B are given a high potential difference
around 10 kV such that electric field acts
Millikan’s oil drop experiment is another vertically downward. A small hole is made
important experiment in modern physics at the centre of the upper plate A and
which is used to determine one of the atomizer is kept exactly above the hole
fundamental constants of nature known as to spray the liquid. When a fine droplet
charge of an electron (Figure 8.6 (a)). of highly viscous liquid (like glycerine)
By adjusting electric field is sprayed using atomizer, it falls freely
suitably, the motion of oil downward through the hole of the top plate
drop inside the chamber can only under the influence of gravity.
be controlled – that is, it can Few oil drops in the chamber can acquire
be made to move up or down electric charge (negative charge) because
or even kept balanced in the of friction with air or passage of x-rays in
field of view for sufficiently long time. between the parallel plates. Further the
Atomizer
chamber is illuminated by light which
is passed horizontally and oil drops can
(+)
be seen clearly using microscope placed
Light
source perpendicular to the light beam. These drops
(–) Microscope
can move either upwards or downward.
Let m be the mass of the oil drop and q
(a) be its charge. Then the forces acting on the
droplet are
To Atomizer
(a) gravitational force Fg = mg
(b) electric force Fe = qE
+ A
(c) buoyant force Fb
Microscope (d) viscous force Fv
Light source Fb Fv Fb Fe
– B
(b)
Figure 8.6 Millikan’s experiment (a) real Oil drop
picture and schematic picture (b) Side
view picture
Fg Fg
The experimental arrangement is shown (a) (b)
in Figure 8.6 (b). The apparatus consists of
two horizontal circular metal plates A and Figure 8.7 Free body diagram of the oil
B each with diameter around 20 cm and drop – (a) without electric field (b) with
electric field
are separated by a small distance 1.5 cm.

(a) Determination of radius of the droplet From the free body diagram as shown in
When the electric field is switched off, Figure 8.7 (a), the force balancing equation is
the oil drop accelerates downwards. Due to Fg = Fb + Fυ
the presence of air drag forces, the oil drops
   
easily attain its terminal velocity and moves ρ 4 πr 3  g = σ  4 πr 3  g + 6πr υη
3  3 
with constant velocity. This velocity can
be carefully measured by noting down the 4 πr 3 (ρ − σ) g = 6πr υη
time taken by the oil drop to fall through 3
a predetermined distance. The free body 2 πr 3 (ρ − σ) g = 3πr υη
diagram of the oil drop is shown in Figure 8.7 3
(a), we note that viscous force and buoyant
1
force balance the gravitational force.  9 ηυ  2
r= 
Let the gravitational force acting on the  2(ρ − σ) g  (8.11)
oil drop (downward) be Fg = mg
Let us assume that oil drop to be spherical Thus, equation (8.11) gives the radius of
in shape. Let ρ be the density of the oil drop, the oil drop.
and r be the radius of the oil drop, then the (b) Determination of electric charge
mass of the oil drop can be expressed in When the electric field is switched on,
terms of its density as charged oil drops experience an upward
m electric force (qE). Among many drops,
ρ= one particular drop can be chosen in the
V
volume of the  field of view of microscope and strength
 

⇒ m = ρ 4 πr 3 
 4 3

of the electric field is adjusted to make that
3  sphere,V = πr 
3 particular drop to be stationary. Under these
The gravitational force can be written in circumstances, there will be no viscous force
terms of density as acting on the oil drop. Then, from the free
  body diagram shown Figure 8.7 (b), the net
Fg = mg ⇒ Fg = ρ 4 πr 3  g force acting on the oil droplet is
3 
Let σ be the density of the air, the Fe + Fb = Fg
upthrust force experienced by the oil drop
due to displaced air is ⇒ qE + 4 πr 3σg = 4 πr 3ρg
3 3
 
Fb = σ  4 πr 3  g
3  ⇒ qE = 4 πr 3 (ρ − σ) g
3
Once the oil drop attains a terminal
velocity υ, the net downward force acting
⇒ q = 4 πr 3 (ρ − σ) g (8.12)
on the oil drop is equal to the viscous force 3E
acting opposite to the direction of motion
Substituting equation (8.11) in equation
of the oil drop. From Stokes law, the viscous
(8.12), we get
force on the oil drop is 1
Fv = 6πr υη 18 π  η3 υ3 2
q=  
E  2(ρ − σ) g 

Millikan repeated this experiment 8.3.1 J
. J. Thomson’s Model
several times and computed the charges on (Water melon model)
oil drops. He found that the charge of any oil
In this model, the atoms are visualized
drop can be written as integral multiple of a
as homogeneous spheres which contain
basic value, −1.6 ×10−19 C, which is nothing
uniform distribution of positively charged
but the charge of an electron.
particles (Figure 8.8 (a)). The negatively
8.3 charged particles known as electrons are
ATOM MODELS embedded in it like seeds in water melon
as shown in Figure 8.8 (b).
Introduction 10 m
–10
Around 400 B.C, Greek philosophers

Leucippus and Democretus proposed the _ _
_
concept of atom, ‘Every object on continued _
_
subdivision ultimately yields atoms’. Later, _
many physicists and chemists tried to
understand the nature with the idea of atoms. Positively charged
Many theories were proposed to explain the material
properties (physical and chemical) of bulk Figure 8.8 (a) Atom (b) Water melon
materials on the basis of atomic model.
For instance, J. J. Thomson proposed a The atoms are electrically neutral, this
theoretical atom model which is based on implies that the total positive charge in an
static distribution of electric charges. Since atom is equal to the total negative charge.
this model fails to explain the stability of atom, According to this model, all the charges
one of his students E. Rutherford proposed the are assumed to be at rest. But from classical
electrodynamics, no stable equilibrium
first dynamic model of an atom. Rutherford
points exist in electrostatic configuration
gave atom model which is based on results of
(this is known as Earnshaw’s theorem)
an experiment done by his students (Geiger
and hence such an atom cannot be stable.
and Marsden). But this model also failed to
Further, it fails to explain the origin of
explain the stability of the atom.
spectral lines observed in the spectrum of
Later, Niels Bohr who is also a student of
hydrogen atom and other atoms.
Rutherford proposed an atomic model for
hydrogen atom which is more successful than 8.3.2 Rutherford’s model
other two models. Niels Bohr atom model
In 1911, Geiger and Marsden did a
could explain the stability of the atom and also
remarkable experiment based on the advice
the origin of line spectrum. There are other
of their teacher Rutherford, which is known
atom models, such as Sommerfeld’s atom
as scattering of alpha particles by gold foil.
model and atom model from wave mechanics The experimental arrangement is shown
(quantum mechanics). But we will restrict in Figure 8.9. A source of alpha particles
ourselves only to very simple (mathematically (radioactive material, example polonium) is
simple) atom model in this section.

Flash of
light
Lead Lead Screem
Block Microscope
Fluorescent
α Screen
θ
+
Polonium Scattering
sample angle
Gold
foil
Figure 8.9 Schematic diagram for scattering of alpha particles experiment by Rutherford
kept inside a thick lead box with a fine hole experiment. In this experiment, alpha
as seen in Figure 8.9. The alpha particles particles (positively charged particles) are
coming through the fine hole of lead box allowed to fall on the atoms of a metallic
pass through another fine hole made on the gold foil. The results of this experiment are
lead screen. These particles are now allowed given below and are shown in Figure 8.10,
to fall on a thin gold foil and it is observed Rutherford expected the nuclear model to be
that the alpha particles passing through gold as seen in Figure 8.10 (a) but the experiment
foil are scattered through different angles. A showed the model as in Figure 8.10 (b).
movable screen (from 0° to 180°) which is (a) Most of the alpha particles are un-
made up of zinc sulphide (ZnS) is kept on deflected through the gold foil and went
the other side of the gold foil to collect the straight.
alpha particles. Whenever alpha particles (b) Some of the alpha particles are deflected
strike the screen, a flash of light is observed through a small angle.
which can be seen through a microscope. (c) A few alpha particles (one in thousand)
Rutherford proposed an atom model are deflected through the angle more
based on the results of alpha scattering than 90°
Expected Observed
Number of scattered particles detected
107
_
_ _ 106
_ _ _ 105
_
_ + 104
_ _ 103
102
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
(a) (b) (c) Scattering angle θ (in degree)
Figure 8.10 In alpha scattering experiment – (a) Rutherford expected (b) experiment
result (c) The variation of alpha particles scattered N(θ) with scattering angle θ

(d) Very few alpha particles returned back of the nucleus and the alpha particle just
(back scattered) –that is, deflected back before it gets reflected back through 180° is
by 180° defined as the distance of closest approach
In Figure 8.10 (c), the dotted points r0 (also known as contact distance). At this
are the alpha scattering experiment data distance, all the kinetic energy of the alpha
points obtained by Geiger and Marsden particle will be converted into electrostatic
and the solid curve is the prediction from potential energy (Refer unit 1, volume 1 of
Rutherford’s nuclear model. It is observed +2 physics text book).
that the Rutherford’s nuclear model is in
1 mυ 2 = 1 (2e)(Ze)
good agreement with the experimental data. 2 0
4 πε 0 r0
Conclusion made by Rutherford based on
the above observation ⇒ r0 = 1 2 Ze 2 = 1 2 Ze 2
From the experimental observations,
4 πε 0 1 mυ2
2 0 (
4 πε 0 Ek
)
Rutherford proposed that an atom has a lot
of empty space and contains a tiny matter where Ek is the kinetic energy of the
known as nucleus whose size is of the alpha particle.This is used to estimate the
order of 10-14m. The nucleus is positively size of the nucleus but size of the nucleus
charged and most of the mass of the atom is always lesser than the distance of closest
is concentrated in nucleus. The nucleus is approach. Further, Rutherford calculated
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. the radius of the nucleus for different
Since static charge distribution cannot be in nuclei and found that it ranges from
a stable equilibrium, he suggested that the 10–14 m to 10–15 m.
electrons are not at rest and they revolve (b) Impact parameter
around the nucleus in circular orbits like
planets revolving around the sun.
(a) Distance of closest approach
Alpha particle
+ θ
+
b 90°
Impact parameter Alpha particle at a very
Alpha particles r0 gold nucleus
distance of closed approach large distance
b
Nucleus
Figure 8.11 Distance of closest approach

and impact parameter Figure 8.12 Impact parameter
When an alpha particle moves straight The impact parameter (b) (see Figure 8.12)
towards the nucleus, it reaches a point is defined as the perpendicular distance
where it comes to rest momentarily and between the centre of the gold nucleus and
returns back as shown in Figure 8.11. The the direction of velocity vector of alpha
minimum distance between the centre particle when it is at a large distance. The

relation between impact parameter and Hence, Rutherford model could not account
scattering angle can be shown as for the stability of atoms.
    (b) According to this model, emission
b ∝ cot  θ  ⇒ b = K cot  θ  (8.13) of radiation must be continuous and
2 2
must give continuous emission spectrum
1 2 Ze 2 but experimentally we observe only line
where K = and θ is called
4 πε 0 mυ20 (discrete) emission spectrum for atoms.
scattering angle. Equation (8.13) implies
that when impact parameter increases,
the scattering angle decreases. Smaller 8.3.3 Bohr atom model
the impact parameter, larger will be the In order to overcome the limitations of
deflection of alpha particles. the Rutherford atom model in explaining the
Drawbacks of Rutherford model stability and also the line spectrum observed
for a hydrogen atom (Figure 8.14), Niels Bohr
Rutherford atom model helps in the
made modifications of Rutherford atom
calculation of the diameter of the nucleus
model. He is the first person to give better
and also the size of the atom but has the
theoretical model of the structure of an atom
following limitations:
to explain the line spectrum of hydrogen
(a) This model fails to explain the
atom. The following are the assumptions
distribution of electrons around the nucleus
(postulates) made by Bohr.
and also the stability of the atom.
++ Figure 8.14 The line spectrum of

__
e hydrogen
Postulates of Bohr atom model:

Instability of atom
(a) The electron in an atom moves
Figure 8.13 Spiral in motion of an around nucleus in circular orbits under the
electron around the nucleus influence of Coulomb electrostatic force
of attraction. This Coulomb force gives
According to classical electrodynamics, necessary centripetal force for the electron
any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic to undergo circular motion.
radiations. Due to emission of radiations, (b) Electrons in an atom revolve around
it loses its energy. Hence, it can no longer the nucleus only in certain discrete orbits
sustain the circular motion. The radius of called stationary orbits where it does not
the orbit, therefore, becomes smaller and radiate electromagnetic energy. Only those
smaller (undergoes spiral motion) as shown discrete orbits allowed are stable orbits.
in Figure 8.13 and finally the electron should
The angular momentum of the electron
fall into the nucleus and the atoms should
in these stationary orbits are quantized –
disintegrate. But this does not happen.
that is, it can be written as integer or integral

The circumference of an electron’s orbit
multiple of h called as reduced Planck’s
2π of radius r must be an integral multiple of de
constant – that is,  (read it as h-bar) and Broglie wavelength – that is,
the integer n is called as principal quantum
2πr = nλ (8.14)
number of the orbit.
h where n = 1,2,3,......
l = n where  =
2π
But the de Broglie wavelength (λ) for an
This condition is known as angular electron of mass m moving with velocity υ is
momentum quantization condition.
λ = h where h is called Planck’s constant.
According to quantum mechanics, mυ
particles like electrons have dual nature (Refer Thus from equation (8.14),
unit 7, volume 2 of +2 physics text book). The
 
standing wave pattern of the de Broglie wave 2πr = n  h 
 mυ 
associated with orbiting electron in a stable
orbit is shown in Figure 8.15. mυr = n h
2π
For any particle of mass m undergoing
circular motion with radius r and velocity υ, the
magnitude of angular momentum l is given by
r l = r (mυ)
mυr = l = n
(c) Energy of orbits are not continuous
but discrete. This is called the quantization
of energy. An electron can jump from one
orbit to another orbit by absorbing or
emitting a photon whose energy is equal
λ
to the difference in energy (ΔE) between
the two orbital levels (Figure 8.16)
∆E = E final − Einitial = hv = h c
λ
n=3 where c is the speed of light and λ is the
wavelength of the radiation used and v is the
frequency of the radiation. Thus, the frequency
Forbidden of the radiation emitted is related only to change
n = 3.3
in atom’s energy and it does not depend on
frequency of electron’s orbital motion.
n=5 _
_e
E E
f f
hv hv
_ _
_ E E _
e i i e
Figure 8.15 Standing wave pattern for Figure 8.16 Absorption and emission of
electron in a stable orbit radiation

E X A M P L E 8. 1 Nucleus is assumed to be stationary
The radius of the 5 orbit of hydrogen
th
Electron revolves in nth orbit
atom is 13.25 Å. Calculate the wavelength of radius rn with
speed υn
of the electron in the 5th orbit.
υn
Solution: Nucleus rn
+Ze + _
2πr = nλ F Electron
m, –e
2 × 3.14 × 13.25Å = 5 × λ Electrostatic attraction
provides centripetal
∴ λ = 16.64Å acceleration
E X A M P L E 8. 2
Figure 8.17 Electron revolving around
Find the (i) angular momentum the nucleus
(ii) velocity of the electron in the 5th orbit
of hydrogen atom. Let Z be the atomic number of the atom,
then +Ze is the charge of the nucleus. Let
(h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js, m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg) –e be the charge of the electron. From
Solution Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction
(i) Angular momentum is given by between the nucleus and the electron is
uurr (+Ze)(− −ee)) ˆr
l = n = nh FFcoloumb = 11 (+Ze)(
coloumb =
2π πε00
44πε rrnn
22
−34
= 5× 6.6 ×10 = 5.25×10−34 kgm2s−1 =−
= − 11 Ze Ze22
ˆr
2 × 3.14 πε00 rrnn22
44πε
This force provides necessary centripetal
(ii) Velocity is given by
force
Velocity υ = l ur mυn2 ˆr
mr F centripetal =
(5.25×10−34 kgm 2s−1 ) rn
= where m be the mass of the electron that
(9.1×10−31 kg)(13.25×10−10 m)
moves with a velocity υn in a circular orbit.
υ= 4.4 ×105 ms−1
Therefore,
ur ur
Radius of the orbit of the electron and F coloumb = F centripetal
velocity of the electron 2
Consider an atom which contains the 1 Ze 2 = mυn
4 πε 0 rn2 rn
nucleus at rest and an electron revolving
around the nucleus in a circular orbit of 4 πε 0 (mυnrn )2
radius rn as shown in Figure 8.17. Nucleus rn = (8.15)
Zme 2
is made up of protons and neutrons. Since
From Bohr’s assumption, the angular
proton is positively charged and neutron is
momentum quantization condition,
electrically neutral, the charge of a nucleus
mυnrn = ln = n,
is purely the total charge of protons.

4 πε 0 (mυnrn )2
∴ rn =
Zme 2
4 πε 0 (n)2 4 πε 0n2 2
rn = =
Zme 2 Zme 2 r2= 4r1
 ε h2  n2 ∴ h r3= 9r1
rn =  0
 (  = )(8.16)
 πme  Z
2 2π r1
where nÎ . Since, ε0, h, e and π are

constants. Therefore, the radius of the orbit
r4= 16r1
becomes
n2
rn = a0
Z Figure 8.18 Variation of radius of the
ε 0h 2 orbit with principal quantum number
where a0 = = 0.529 Å. This is
πme 2
known as Bohr radius which is the smallest υn = h Z
radius of the orbit in an atom. Bohr radius 2πma0 n
is also used as unit of length called Bohr.
1 Bohr = 0.53 Å. For hydrogen atom (Z = 1), υn µ 1
n
the radius of nth orbit is
Note that the velocity of electron
rn = a0n2 decreases as the principal quantum number
For n = 1 (first orbit or ground state), increases as shown in Figure 8.19. This curve
is the rectangular hyperbola. This implies
r1 = a0 = 0.529 Å that the velocity of electron in ground state
For n = 2 (second orbit or first excited state), is maximum when compared to excited
states.
r2 = 4a0 = 2.116 Å
For n = 3 (third orbit or second excited state), Vn
r3 = 9a0 = 4.761 Å
and so on. υn µ 1
n
Thus the radius of the orbit from centre
increases with n, that is, rn ∝ n2 as shown in
Figure 8.18. O n
Further, Bohr’s angular momentum
quantization condition leads to Figure 8.19 Variation of velocity of
the electron in the orbit with principal
mυnrn = mυna0n2 = n h quantum number
2π

The energy of an electron in the nth orbit Notice that the energy of the first excited
Since the electrostatic force is a state is greater than the ground state, second
conservative force, the potential energy for excited state is greater than the first excited
the nth orbit is state and so on. Thus, the orbit which is
(+Ze)(−e) 2 closest to the nucleus (r1) has lowest energy
Un = 1 = − 1 Ze
4 πε 0 rn 4 πε 0 rn (minimum energy compared with other
1 Z 2
me 4  ε 0h2 n2  orbits). So, it is often called ground state
= − 2 2 2  rn =  
4ε0 h n  πme 2 Z  energy (lowest energy state). The ground
state energy of hydrogen (–13.6 eV ) is
The kinetic energy for the nth orbit is used as a unit of energy called Rydberg
4 2 (1 Rydberg = –13.6 eV ).
1 2 me
KEn = mυn = 2 2 2 Z
2 The negative value of this energy is
8 ε 0h n
because of the way the zero of the potential
This implies that Un = –2 KEn. Total energy is defined. When the electron is
energy in the nth orbit is taken away to an infinite distance (very far
distance) from nucleus, both the potential
En = KEn + U n = KEn − 2KEn = − KEn
energy and kinetic energy terms vanish
4 2
En = − me2 2 Z2 and hence the total energy also vanishes.
8ε 0h n The energy level diagram along with the
For hydrogen atom (Z = 1), shape of the orbits for increasing values of n
are shown in Figure 8.20. It shows that the
4
energies of the excited states come closer and
En = − me2 2 12 joule (8.17)
8 ε 0h n closer together when the principal quantum
number n takes higher values.
where n stands for principal quantum
number. The negative sign in equation E X A M P L E 8. 3
(8.17) indicates that the electron is bound
(a) Show that the ratio of velocity of an
to the nucleus.
electron in the first Bohr orbit to the speed
Substituting the values of mass and
of light c is a dimensionless number.
charge of an electron (m and e), permittivity
of free space ε0 and Planck’s constant h and (b) Compute the velocity of electrons in
expressing in terms of eV, we get ground state, first excited state and second
excited state in Bohr atom model.
En = −13.6 12 eV
n Solution
or the first orbit (ground state), the total

F (a) The velocity of an electron in nth orbit is
energy of electron is E1= – 13.6 eV. υn = h Z
For the second orbit (first excited state), 2πma0 n
the total energy of electron is E2= –3.4 eV. ε 0h 2
For the third orbit (second excited state), where a0 = = Bohr radius. Substituting
πme 2
the total energy of electron is E3= –1.51 eV for a0 in υn,
and so on.

Free electron
Energy, J Energy, eV
n=∞ 0 0
−19
n=5 —0.87×10 —0.54
n=4 −19
—1.36×10 —0.85
n=3 −19
—2.42×10 —1.51 Excited states
n=2 −19
—5.43×10 —3.40
n=1
—21.76×10−19 —13.6 Ground state
Figure 8.20 Energy levels of a hydrogen atom
2  2  (1.6 ×10−19 C)2

υn = e Z = c  e  Z = αcZ α=
2 ε 0h n  2ε 0hc  n n 2 ×(8.854 ×10−12 C 2 N−1m−2 )
where c is the speed of light in free space or (1.6 ×10−19 C)2
vacuum and its value is c = 3 × 108 m s–1and (6.6 ×10−34 Nms)×(3×108 ms−1 )
α is called fine structure constant. υ1 2
=α= e
For a hydrogen atom, Z = 1 and for the first c 2ε 0hc
orbit, n = 1, the ratio of velocity of electron 1 1
≈ = which is a dimensionless
in first orbit to the speed of light in vacuum 136.9 137
number
or free space is

⇒α= 1
137
(b) Using fine structure constant, the
velocity of electron can be written as
υn = αcZ
n m M
For hydrogen atom (Z = 1) the velocity of COM
electron in nth orbit is r2 r1
υn = c 1 = (2.19 ×106 ) 1 ms−1
137 n n
For the first orbit (ground state), the
Let V be the velocity of the nuclear motion
velocity of electron is
and υ be the velocity of electron motion.
υ1 = 2.19 ×106 ms−1 Since the total linear momentum of the
system is zero,
For the second orbit (first excited state),
the velocity of electron is −mυ + M υ = 0 or
υ2 = 1.095×106 ms−1 MV = mυ = p
ur ur r
pe + pn = 0 or
For the third orbit (second excited state), ur ur
the velocity of electron is p e = pn = p
Hence, the kinetic energy of the system is
υ3 = 0.73×106 ms−1
pn2 p2 p2  1 1 
Here, υ1 > υ2 > υ3 KE = + e =  + 
2 M 2m 2  M m 
Let 1 + 1 = 1 . Here the reduced mass
E X A M P L E 8. 4 M m µm
The Bohr atom model is derived with the is, µ m = mM

M +m
assumption that the nucleus of the atom
is stationary and only electrons revolve Therefore, the kinetic energy of the system
around the nucleus. Suppose the nucleus is p2
now is KE =
also in motion, then calculate the energy of 2µ m
this new system.
Since the potential energy of the system is
Solution same, the total energy of the hydrogen can
be expressed by replacing mass by reduced
Let the mass of the electron be m and
mass, which is
mass of the nucleus be M. Since there is
µ e4
no external force acting on the system, the En = − m2 2 12
centre of mass of hydrogen atom remains 8 ε 0h n
at rest. Hence, both nucleus and electron Since the nucleus is very heavy compared
move about the centre of mass as shown in to the electron, the reduced mass is closer
figure. to the mass of the electron.

EI = E2 – E1 = –3.4 eV – (–13.6 eV) = 10.2 eV
In 1931, H.C. Urey and co-
Note workers noticed that in the Similarly, the excitation energy for
shorter wavelength region an electron from ground state (n = 1) to
of the hydrogen spectrum lines, faint second excited state (n = 3) is called second
companion lines are observed. From excitation energy, which is
the isotope displacement effect (isotope
EII = E3 – E1 = –1.51 eV – (–13.6 eV) = 12.1 eV
shift), the isotope of the same element will
have slightly different spectral lines. The and so on.
presence of these faint lines confirmed Excitation potential is defined as
the existence of isotopes of hydrogen
excitation energy per unit charge.
atom (which is named as Deuterium).
First excitation potential is,
On calculating wavelength or wave
number difference between the faint EI = eVI ⇒ VI = 1 EI = 10.2 volt
e
and bright spectral lines, atomic mass
Second excitation potential is,
of deuterium is measured to be twice
that of atomic mass of hydrogen atom. EII = eVII ⇒ VII = 1 EII = 12.1 volt
Bohr atom model could not explain e
this isotopic shift. Thus by considering and so on.
nuclear motion (although the movement
of the nucleus is much smaller, it is Ionization energy and ionization potential
observed) into account in the Bohr atom An atom is said to be ionized when an
model, the wave number or wavelength electron is completely removed from the
difference between hydrogen atom and atom – that is, it reaches the state with energy
deuterium is theoretically calculated En→∞ . The minimum energy required to
which perfectly agreed with the remove an electron from an atom in the
spectroscopic measured values. ground state is known as binding energy
The difference between hydrogen or ionization energy.
atom and deuterium is in the number Eionizaation = E∞ − E1 = 0 − (−13.6 eV)
of neutron. Hydrogen atom contains = 13.6 eV
an electron and a proton, whereas
When an electron is in nth state of an atom,
deuterium has an electron, a proton
the energy spent to remove an electron from
and a neutron.
that state – that is, its ionization energy is
 
Excitation energy and excitation potential Eionization = E∞ − En = 0 − − 132.6 Z 2 eV
 n 
The energy required to excite an
electron from lower energy state to any = 132.6 Z 2 eV
n
higher energy state is known as excitation
energy. At normal room temperature, the
The excitation energy for an electron electron in a hydrogen atom (Z=1) spends
from ground state (n = 1) to first excited most of its time in the ground state. The
state (n = 2) is called first excitation energy, amount of energy spent to remove an
which is electron from the ground state of an atom

Table 8.1
Physical quantity Ground state First excited state Second excited state
Radius (rn ∝ n2) 0.529 Å 2.116 Å 4.761 Å
Velocity (vn ∝ n-1) 2.19 × 106 m s-1 1.095 × 106 m s-1 0.73 × 106 m s-1
Total Energy (En ∝ n-2) –13.6 eV –3.4 eV –1.51 eV
(E = 0 for n→∞) is known as first ionization (c) When a photon with energy 42 eV
energy (13.6 eV). Then, the hydrogen atom and another photon with energy 56 eV are
is said to be in ionized state or simply called made to collide with this atom, does this
as hydrogen ion, denoted by H+. If we supply atom absorb these photons?
more energy than the ionization energy, the (d) Determine the radius of its first Bohr
excess energy will be the kinetic energy of orbit.
the free electron.
Ionization potential is defined as (e) Calculate the kinetic and potential
ionization energy per unit charge. energies in the ground state.
Solutions
Vionization = 1 Eionization = 132.6 Z 2 V
e n (a) Given that
Thus, for a hydrogen atom (Z =1), the
ionization potential is En = − 542.4 eV
n
V = 132.6 volt For n = 1, the ground state energy
n E1 = –54.4 eV and for n = 2, E2 = –13.6 eV.
The radius, velocity and total energy in Similarly, E3 = –6.04 eV, E4 = –3.4 eV and
ground state, first excited state and second so on.
excited state is listed in Table 8.1. For large value of principal quantum
number – that is, n = ∞, we get E∞ = 0 eV.
E X A M P L E 8. 5
0 n=∞
—3.4 n=4
Suppose the energy of a hydrogen–like —6.04 n=3
atom is given as En = − 542.4 eV where —13.6 n=2
n
nÎ . Calculate the following: —54.4(eV) n=1
(a) Sketch the energy levels for this atom (b) For a hydrogen-like atom, ground state
and compute its atomic number. energy is
(b) If the atom is in ground state, compute
its first excitation potential and also its E1 = − 132.6 Z 2 eV
n
ionization potential.

where Z is the atomic number. Hence, But note that E2 – E1 ≠ 42 eV, E3 – E1 ≠ 42 eV,
comparing this energy with given energy, E4 – E1 ≠ 42 eV and E3 – E2 ≠ 42 eV.
we get, – 13.6 Z2 = – 54.4 ⇒ Z = ±2. Since,
atomic number cannot be negative number, For all possibilities, no difference in energy
Z = 2. is an integer multiple of photon energy.
Hence, photon A is not absorbed by this
(c) The first excitation energy is atom. But for Photon B, E4 – E1 = 51 eV,
EI = E2 − E1 = −13.6 eV − (−54.4 eV) which means, Photon B can be absorbed
= 40.8 eV by this atom.
Hence, the first excitation potential is (e) Since total energy is equal to negative of
kinetic energy in Bohr atom model, we get
(40.8 eV)
VI = 1 EI =
e e  
KEn = −En = −− 542.4 eV
= 40.8 volt  n 
The first ionization energy is = 542.4 eV
n
Eionization = E∞ − E1 = 0 − (−54.4 eV)
Potential energy is negative of twice the
= 54.4 eV
kinetic energy, which means,
Hence, the first ionization potential is  
(54.4 eV) U n = −2KEn = −2  542.4 eV
 n 
Vionization = 1 Eionization =
e e
= 54.4 volt = − 1082.8 eV
n
(d) Consider two photons to be A and B. For a ground state, put n =1
Given that photon A with energy 42 eV Kinetic energy is KE1 = 54.4 eV and
and photon B with energy 51 eV Potential energy is U1 = –108.8 eV
From Bohr assumption, difference in energy
levels is equal to photon energy, then atom 8.3.4 Atomic spectra
will absorb energy, otherwise, not.
Materials in the solid, liquid and gaseous
E2 − E1 = −13.6 eV − (−54.4 eV)
states emit electromagnetic radiations
= 40.8 eV ≈ 41eV when they are heated up and these emitted
Similarly, radiations usually belong to continuous
E3 − E1 = −6.04 eV − (−54.4 eV) spectrum. For example, when white light
= 48.36 eV is examined through a spectrometer,
electromagnetic radiations of all wavelengths
E4 − E1 = −3.4 eV − (−54.4 eV) are observed which is a continuous spectrum.
= 51eV In early twentieth century, many scientists
E3 − E2 = −6.04 eV − (−13.6 eV) spent considerable time in understanding the
= 7.56 eV characteristic radiations emitted by the atoms
of individual elements exposed to a flame or
and so on. electrical discharge. When they are viewed

High voltage
difference
Diffraction
grating
Line spectrum
Low-pressure gas
Figure 8.21 Spectrum of an atom
or photographed, instead of a continuous photons. Once the electrons get sufficient

spectrum, the radiation contains of a set energy as given by Bohr’s postulate (c), it
of discrete lines, each with characteristic absorbs energy with particular wavelength
wavelength. In other words, the wavelengths (or frequency) and jumps from its stationary
of the light obtained are well defined and the state (original state) to higher energy state.
positions and intensities are characteristic of Those wavelengths (or frequencies) for
the element as shown in Figure 8.21. which the colours are not observed are seen
This implies that these spectra are unique as dark lines in the absorption spectrum as
to each element and can be used to identify shown in Figure 8.22 (b).
the element of the gas (like finger print used Hydrogen spectrum
to identify a person) – that is, it varies from n=5 n=4 n=3 n=5 n=4
one gas to another gas. This uniqueness of
line spectra of elements made the scientists
to determine the composition of stars, sun λ(nm)
and also used to identify the unknown
400 500 600 700 400 500
compounds.
(a) Emission spectrum of hydrogen (b) Absorption
Hydrogen spectrum (in wavelength) (in w
When the hydrogen gas enclosed Hydrogen
in a spectrum
tube is heated
n = 5up,nit
= 4emits electromagnetic
n=3 n=5 n=4 n=3
radiations of certain sharply-defined
characteristic wavelength (line spectrum),
called hydrogen emission spectrum (Refer
λ(nm) λ(nm)
unit 5, volume 1 of +2 physics text book).
The emission
400 spectra500 of hydrogen
600are shown700 400 500 600 700
(a) Emission
in Figure 8.22(a). spectrum of hydrogen (b) Absorption spectrum of hydrogen
(in wavelength)
When any gas is heated up, the thermal (in wavelength)
energy is supplied to excite the electrons.
Similarly by passing light on the atoms, Figure 8.22 Hydrogen spectrum
electrons can be excited by absorbing (a) emission (b) absorption

Since electrons in excited states have very limit. These series are named as Lyman series,
small life time, these electrons jump back to Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett series,
ground state through spontaneous emission Pfund series, etc. The wavelengths of these
in a short duration of time (approximately spectral lines perfectly agree with the equation
10–8 s) by emitting the radiation with same derived from Bohr atom model.
wavelength (or frequency) corresponding
1 = R  1 − 1  = v
to the colours it absorbed (Figure 8.22 (a)). λ  n2 m2  (8.18)

This is called emission spectroscopy.
The wavelengths of these lines can be where v is known as wave number
calculated with great precision. Further, the which is inverse of wavelength, R is known
emitted radiation contains wavelengths both as Rydberg constant whose value is 1.09737
lesser and greater than the visible spectrum. x 107 m-1and m and n are positive integers
such that m > n. The various spectral series
n=5 Ionised atom
are discussed below:
n=4
E=0 (Continuous energy levels)
—0.85
—1.5 n=3 Excited (a) Lyman series
Paschen series states
—3.4
n=2 Put n = 1 and m = 2,3,4....... in equation
Balmer
—5 series (8.18). The wave number or wavelength of
Energy (eV)
The lowest energy level is

called the ground state and
spectral lines of Lyman series which lies in
all other states are called as
excited states
ultra-violet region is
—10
 
n=1 Ground state v = 1 = R  12 − 12 
—13.6
—15 Lyman
λ 1 m 
c hc (to calculate wavelengths
λ= =
series v E2— E1 and frequencies)
(b) Balmer series
Wavelength, λ Put n = 2 and m = 3,4,5....... in equation
(8.18). The wave number or wavelength of
1875 nm
820 nm
122 nm
365 nm
656 nm
91 nm
spectral lines of Balmer series which lies in

visible region is
 
v = 1 = R  12 − 12 
Lyman
λ 2 m 
series Balmer series Paschen series
(c) Paschen series

UV Visible light IR
Put n = 3 and m = 4,5,6....... in equation
Figure 8.23 Spectral series – Lyman, (8.18). The wave number or wavelength of
Balmer, Paschen series
spectral lines of Paschen series which lies in
infra-red region (near IR) is
Notice that the spectral lines of hydrogen as
shown in Figure 8.23 are grouped in separate  
v = 1 = R  12 − 12 
series. In each series, the distance of separation λ 3 m 
between the consecutive wavelengths
(d) Brackett series
decreases from higher wavelength to the lower
wavelength, and also wavelength in each series Put n = 4 and m = 5,6,7........ in equation
approach a limiting value known as the series (8.18). The wave number or wavelength of

spectral lines of Brackett series which lies in 8.4
infra-red region (middle IR) is NUCLEI
 
v = 1 = R  12 − 12 
λ 4 m  Introduction
(e) Pfund series In the previous section, we have
discussed various preliminary atom models,
Put n = 5 and m = 6,7,8........ in equation
Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering
(8.18). The wave number or wavelength of
experiment and Bohr atom model. These
spectral lines of Pfund series which lies in
played a vital role to understand the structure
infra-red region (far IR) is
of the atom and the nucleus. In this section,
 
v = 1 = R  12 − 12  the structure and the properties of the
λ 5 m  nucleus, and its classifications are discussed.
Different spectral series are listed in
Table 8.2. 8.4.1 Composition of nucleus
Atoms have a nucleus surrounded by
Table 8.2
electrons. The nucleus contains protons
n m Series Name Region and neutrons. The neutrons are electrically
1 2,3,4..... Lyman Ultraviolet neutral (q = 0) and the protons have positive
2 3,4,5..... Balmer Visible charge (q =+ e) equal in magnitude of the

charge of the electron (q = –e). The number

3 4,5,6..... Paschen Infrared
of protons in the nucleus is called the
4 5,6,7...... Brackett Infrared atomic number and it is denoted by Z. The
5 6,7,8..... Pfund Infrared number of neutrons in the nucleus is called
neutron number (N). The total number
Limitations of Bohr atom model of neutrons and protons in the nucleus is
The following are the drawbacks of Bohr called the mass number and it is denoted
atom model by A. Hence, A = Z+N.
(a) Bohr atom model is valid only for The two constituents of nucleus namely
hydrogen atom or hydrogen like-atoms neutrons and protons, are collectively
but not for complex atoms. called nucleons. The mass of a proton is
(b) When the spectral lines are closely 1.6726 ×10−27 kg which is roughly 1836
examined, individual lines of hydrogen times the mass of the electron. The mass of
spectrum is accompanied by a number a neutron is slightly greater than the mass of
of faint lines. These are often called fine the proton and it is equal to 1.6749 ×10−27 kg.
structure. This is not explained by Bohr To specify the nucleus of any element, we
atom model. use the following general notation
(c) Bohr atom model fails to explain the A
X
Z
intensity variations in the spectral lines.
where X is the chemical symbol of
(d) The distribution of electrons in atoms is
the element, A is the mass number and
not completely explained by Bohr atom
Z is the atomic number. For example,
model.

the nitrogen nucleus is represented by only in nuclear reactions in the laboratory
7N . It implies that nitrogen contains or by cosmic rays.
15
15 nucleons of which 7 are protons The chemical properties of any atom are
(Z = 7) and 8 are neutrons (N = A – Z = 8). determined only by electrons, the isotopes
Note that once the element is specified, of any element have same electronic
the value of Z is known and subscript Z is structure and same chemical properties. So
sometimes omitted. For example, nitrogen the isotopes of the same element are placed
nucleus is simply denoted as 15 N and we call in the same location in the periodic table.
it as ‘nitrogen fifteen’. Isobars:
Since the nucleus is made up of positively
Isobars are the atoms of different
charged protons and electrically neutral
elements having the same mass number
neutrons, the overall charge of the nucleus is
A, but different atomic number Z. In other
positive and it has the value of +Ze. But the
words, isobars are the atoms of different
atom is electrically neutral which implies that
chemical element which has same number
the number of electrons in the atom is equal
of nucleon. For example 1640 S , 1740Cl , 1840 Ar ,
to the number of protons in the nucleus.
19 K and 20 Ca are isobars having same mass
40 40
8.4.2 I sotopes, isobars, and number 40 and different atomic number.

isotones Unlike isotopes, isobars are chemically
Isotopes: different elements. They have different
physical and chemical properties.
In nature, there are atoms of a particular
element whose nuclei have same number of Isotones:
protons but different number of neutrons. Isotones are the atoms of different
These kinds of atoms are called isotopes. elements having same number of neutrons.
In other words, isotopes are atoms of 5 B and 6 C are examples of isotones which
12 13
the same element having same atomic 7 neutrons.

number Z, but different mass number A.
For example, hydrogen has three isotopes 8.4.3 A
tomic and nuclear
and they are represented as 11H (hydrogen), masses
1 H (deuterium),and 1 H (tritium). Note that The mass of nuclei is very small when it
2 3
all the three nuclei have one proton and, expressed in SI units (about 10-25 kg or less).
hydrogen has no neutron, deuterium has 1 Therefore, it is more convenient to express it
neutron and tritium has 2 neutrons. in terms of another unit namely, the atomic
The number of isotopes for the particular mass unit (u). One atomic mass unit (u)
element and their relative abundances is defined as the 1/12th of the mass of the
(percentage) vary with each element. For isotope of carbon 126 C , the most abundant
example, carbon has four main isotopes: naturally occurring isotope of carbon.
6 C , 6 C , 6 C and 6 C . But in nature, the In other words
11 12 13 14
percentage of 6 C is approximately 98.9%,

12
that of 136 C is 1.1% and that of 146 C is mass of 126 C atom 1.9926 ×10−26
1u= =
0.0001%. The other carbon isotope 116 C , do 12 12
−27
not occur naturally and it can be produced = 1.660 ×10 kg

In terms of this atomic mass unit, the different methods have been carried out
mass of the neutron = 1.008665 u, the on the nuclei of various atoms. The nuclei
mass of the proton =1.007276 u, the mass are found to be approximately spherical in
of the hydrogen atom = 1.007825 u and the shape. It is experimentally found that radius
mass of 126 C = 12u. Note that usually mass of nuclei for Z > 10, satisfies the following
specified is the mass of the atoms, not mass empirical formula
of the nucleus. To get the nuclear mass of
1
particular nucleus, the mass of electrons has R = R0 A 3 (8.19)
to be subtracted from the corresponding
atomic mass. Experimentally the atomic Here A is the mass number of the nucleus
mass is determined by the instrument and the constant R0 = 1.2 F, where 1 F =
called Bainbridge mass spectrometer. If we 1 × 10–15 m.The unit fermi (F) is named after
determine the atomic mass of the element Enrico Fermi.
without considering the effect of its isotopes,
we get the mass averaged over different
isotopes weighted by their abundances. E X A M P L E 8. 7
197
Calculate the radius of 79 Au nucleus.
E X A M P L E 8. 6
Solution
Calculate the average atomic mass of
chlorine if no distinction is made between According to the equation (8.19),
its different isotopes? 1
R = 1.2 × 10 −15 × (197) 3 = 6.97 × 10 −15 m
Solution Or R = 6.97 F
The element chlorine is a mixture of
75.77% of 1735Cl and 24.23% of 17
37
Cl . So the
average atomic mass will be E X A M P L E 8. 8
75.77 24.23 Calculate the density of the nucleus with
× 34.96885u + × 36.96593u
100 100 mass number A.
= 35.453u
Solution
In fact, the chemist uses the average atomic
mass or simply called chemical atomic From equation (8.19), the radius of the
1
weight (35.453 u for chlorine) of an element. nuclei satisfy the equation = R0 A 3 . Then
So it must be remembered that the atomic the volume of the nucleus
mass which is mentioned in the periodic
table is basically averaged atomic mass. V = 4 πR 3 = 4 πR03 A
3 3
By ignoring the mass difference between
8.4.4 S
ize and density of the the proton and neutron, the total mass of
nucleus the nucleus having mass number A is equal
The alpha particle scattering experiment to A.m where m is mass of the proton and
and many other measurements using is equal to 1.6726 x 10-27 kg.

Mass of 6 electrons = 6 × 0.00055 u = 0.0033 u
+ n + Proton
n n + The expected mass of carbon-12 nucleus
+ n
+ + = 6.05196 u + 6.04362 u = 12.09558 u
n
n + + But using mass spectroscopy, the
+ n n Neutron
atomic mass of carbon-12 atom is found
to be 12 u. So if we subtract the mass of 6
Nuclear density electrons (0.0033 u) from 12 u, we get the
carbon-12 nuclear mass which is equal
ρ = mass of the nuclei = A.m = m to 11.9967 u. Note that the experimental
Volume ofthe nuclei 4 πR 3 A 4 πR 3
3 0 3 0 mass of carbon-12 nucleus is less than the
total mass of its individual constituents by
The above expression shows that the
∆m = 0.09888 u . This difference in mass ∆m
nuclear density is independent of the mass
is called mass defect. In general, if M, mp,
number A. In other words, all the nuclei
and mn are mass of the nucleus ( ZA X ), the
(Z > 10) have the same density and it is an
mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron
important characteristics of the nuclei.
respectively, then the mass defect is given by
We can calculate the numerical
value of this density by substituting the
corresponding values.
( )
∆m = Zm p + Nmn − M (8.20)
Where has this mass disappeared? The

ρ= 1.67 ×10−27 = 2.3×1017 kg m-3.
4 π ×(1.2 ×10−15 )3 answer was provided by Albert Einstein
3 with the help of famous mass-energy
relation ( E = mc 2 ) . According to this
It implies that nucleons are extremely
relation, the mass can be converted into
tightly packed in the nucleus and compare
energy and energy can be converted into
this density with the density of water which
mass. In the case of the carbon-12 nucleus,
is 103 kg m-3.
when 6 protons and 6 neutrons combine to
form carbon-12 nucleus, mass equal to mass
A single teaspoon of nuclear
defect disappears and the corresponding
matter would weigh about
energy is released. This is called the binding
trillion tons.
energy of the nucleus (BE) and is equal to
( ∆m) c 2 . In fact, to separate the carbon-12
8.4.5 Mass defect and nucleus into individual constituents, we
binding energy must supply the energy equal to binding
energy of the nucleus.
It is experimentally found out that the
We can write the equation (8.20) in
mass of any nucleus is always less than the
terms of binding energy
sum of the mass of its individual constituents.
For example, consider the carbon-12 nucleus
which is made up of 6 protons and 6 neutrons. ( )
BE = Zm p + Nmn − M c 2 (8.21)
Mass of 6 neutrons = 6 ×1.00866 u = 6.05196 u
It is always convenient to work with
Mass of 6 protons = 6 × 1.00727 u = 6.04362 u
the mass of the atom than the mass of the

nucleus. Hence by adding and subtracting The binding energy of the 24 He nucleus is
the mass of the Z electrons, we get 28 MeV.
(
BE = Zm p + Zme + Nmn − M − Zme c 2 ) (8.22)
8.4.6 Binding energy curve
( )
BE =  Z m p + me + Nmn − M − Zme  c 2 In the previous section, the origin of the
where m p + me = mH (mass of hydrogen binding energy is discussed. Now we can
atom) find the average binding energy per nucleon
BE . It is given by
BE = [ ZmH + Nmn − ( M + Zme ) ] c 2 (8.23)
BE =
[ Zm H + Nmn − M A ] c 2
(8.25)
Here M + Zme = M A where M A is the A
mass of the atom of an element ZA X .
The average binding energy per nucleon
Finally, the binding energy in terms of
is the energy required to separate single
the atomic masses is given by
nucleon from the particular nucleus. BE
BE = [ ZmH + Nmn − M A ] c 2 (8.24) is plotted against A of all known nuclei. It
gives a curve as seen in Figure 8.24.
10
Using Einstein’s mass-energy 16
8O 56
26 Fe
120
avg. binding energy per nucleon (MeV)
50 Sn
Note equivalence, the energy 4
2He
8 238
92 U
equivalent of one atomic
mass unit 1u = 1.66 × 10−27 × (3 × 108 ) 2 6
= 14.94 × 10 −11 J ≈ 931MeV
4
E X A M P L E 8. 9 2
3
2He
2
1H
Compute the binding energy of He 4
2
0
nucleus using the following data: Atomic 0 50 100 150 200 250
Number of nucleons, A (mass number)
mass of Helium atom, M A ( He) = 4.00260 u
and that of hydrogen atom, mH = 1.00785 u. Figure 8.24 Avg. binding energy of the
nucleons
Solution:
Important inferences from of the average
Binding energy BE = [ ZmH + Nmn − M A ] c 2
binding energy curve:
For helium nucleus, Z = 2, N = A–Z = 4–2 = 2
(1) The value of BE rises as the mass number
Mass defect increases until it reaches a maximum
∆m = ( 2 × 1.00785 u ) + ( 2 × 1.008665 u ) − 4.00260 u  value of 8.8 MeV for A = 56 (iron) and
then it slowly decreases.
0785 u ) + ( 2 × 1.008665 u ) − 4.00260 u  ∆m = 0.03038 u
(2) The average binding energy per nucleon
B.E = 0.03038 u × c 2 is about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass
B.E = 0.03038 × 931MeV = 28 MeV number between A = 40 and 120. These
elements are comparatively more stable
1uc = 931MeV 
2
and not radioactive.

(3) For higher mass numbers, the curve the electrostatic repulsive force between two
reduces slowly and BE for uranium is protons separated by a distance 10−15 m
about 7.6 MeV. They are unstable and
( )
2
radioactive. q2 1.6 × 10 −19
F = k × 2 = 9 × 10 ×
9
≈ 230 N
From Figure 8.24, if two light nuclei with r ( )
2
10 −15
A<28 combine with a nucleus with A<56,
the binding energy per nucleon is more for The acceleration experienced by a proton
final nucleus than initial nuclei. Thus, if due to the force of 230 N is
the lighter elements combine to produce a F 230 N
nucleus of medium value A, a large amount a= = −27
≈ 1.4 × 1029 m s −2 .
m 1.67 × 10 kg
of energy will be released. This is the basis
of nuclear fusion and is the principle of the This is nearly 1028 times greater than the
hydrogen bomb. acceleration due to gravity. So if the protons in
(4) If a nucleus of heavy element is split the nucleus experience only the electrostatic
(fission) into two or more nuclei of force, then the nucleus would fly apart in an
medium value A, the energy released instant. Then how protons are held together in
would again be large. The atom bomb is nucleus?
based on this principle and huge energy of From this observation, it was concluded
atom bombs comes from this fission when that there must be a strong attractive force
it is uncontrolled. Fission is explained in between protons to overcome the repulsive
the section 8.7 Coulomb’s force. This attractive force which
holds the nucleus together is called strong
E X A M P L E 8. 10
nuclear force. The properties of strong nuclear
Compute the binding energy per nucleon force were understood through various
of 24 He nucleus. experiments carried out between 1930s and
1950s. A few properties of strong nuclear force
Solution
are
From example 8.9, we found that the BE of (i) The strong nuclear force is of very short
2 He =28 Mev range, acting only up to a distance of a
4
few Fermi. But inside the nucleus, the

Binding energy per nucleon = B.E = 28
repulsive Coulomb force or attractive
MeV/4 = 7 MeV.
gravitational forces between two protons
are much weaker than the strong nuclear
8.5 force between two protons. Similarly, the
NUCLEAR FORCE gravitational force between two neutrons
is also much weaker than strong nuclear
force between the neutrons. So nuclear
Nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
force is the strongest force in nature.
From electrostatics, we learnt that like charges
(ii) The strong nuclear force is attractive
repel each other. In the nucleus, the protons
and acts with an equal strength between
are separated by a distance of about a few
proton-proton, proton-neutron, and
Fermi (10−15 m ), they must exert on each other
neutron – neutron.
a very strong repulsive force. For example,

(iii) Strong nuclear force does not act on the The phenomenon of radioactivity was
electrons. So it does not alter the chemical first discovered by Henri Becquerel in
properties of the atom. 1896. Later, Marie Curie and her husband
Pierre Curie did a series of experiments
8.6 in detail to understand the phenomenon
RADIOACTIVITY of radioactivity. In India, Saha Institute
of Nuclear Physics (SINP), Kolkata is the
In the binding energy curve, the stability premier institute pursuing active research
of the nucleus that has Z > 82 starts to in nuclear physics.
decrease and these nuclei are called unstable
nuclei. Some of the unstable nuclei decay
During early days of nuclear
naturally by emitting some kind of particles Note physics research, the term
to form a stable nucleus. The elements ‘radiation’ was used to denote
of atomic number Z > 82 and isotopes of the emanations from radioactive
lighter nuclei belong to naturally-occurring nuclei. Now we know that α rays
radioactive nuclei. Each of these radioactive are in fact 24 He nuclei and β rays are
nuclei decays to another nucleus by the electrons or positrons. Certainly, they
emission of 24 He nucleus ( α - decay) or are not electromagnetic radiation.
electron or positron ( β - decay) or gamma The γ ray alone is electromagnetic
rays ( γ - decay). radiation.
The phenomenon of spontaneous
emission of highly penetrating radiations
such as α, β and γ rays by an element is 8.6.1 Alpha decay
called radioactivity and the substances
When unstable nuclei decay by emitting
which emit these radiations are called
an α-particle ( 24 He nucleus), it loses two
radioactive elements. These radioactive
protons and two neutrons. As a result, its
elements can be heavy elements (Z > 82),
atomic number Z decreases by 2, the mass
isotopes of lighter and heavy elements and
number decreases by 4. We write the alpha
these isotopes are called radioisotopes. For
decay process symbolically in the following
example, carbon isotope 146 C is radioactive
way
but 126 C is not.
Radioisotopes have a variety of A
X→ A− 4
Y + 24 He (8.26)
Z Z −2
applications such as carbon dating, cancer
treatment, etc. When radioactive nucleus Here X is called the parent nucleus and
undergoes decay, the mass of the system Y is called the daughter nucleus.
decreases – that is, the mass of the initial Example: Decay of Uranium 238 92 U to
nucleus before decay is always greater than thorium 90Th with the emission of 24 He
234
the sum of the mass of the final nucleus nucleus (α-particle)

and that of the emitted particle. When this 238
U→ 234
Th + 24 He
92 90
difference in mass ∆m < 0 , it appears as
the energy according to Einstein’s relation As already mentioned, the total mass of the
E = ∆m c 2 . daughter nucleus and 24 He nucleus is always

less than that of the parent nucleus. The E X A M P L E 8. 1 1
difference in mass ( ∆m = mX − mY − mα )
is released as energy called disintegration (a) Calculate the disintegration energy
energy Q and is given by when stationary 232 92 U nucleus decays
to thorium 90Th with the emission of
228
α particle. The atomic masses are of

Q = (mX − mY − mα ) c 2 (8.27)
92 U = 232.037156 u , 90Th = 228.028741u
232 228
and 2 He = 4.002603 u
4
Note that for spontaneous decay (natural

(b) Calculate kinetic energies of Th
228
radioactivity) Q >0. In alpha decay process, 90
and α-particle and their ratio.
the disintegration energy is certainly positive
(Q > 0). In fact, the disintegration energy Q Solution
is also the net kinetic energy gained in the
The difference in masses
decay process or if the parent nucleus is at
∆m = (mU − mTh − mα )
rest, Q is the total kinetic energy of daughter
nucleus and the 24 He nucleus. Suppose Q = (232.037156–228.028741 – 4.002603)u
< 0, then the decay process cannot occur The mass lost in this decay = 0.005812 u
spontaneously and energy must be supplied
Since 1u = 931MeV, the energy Q released
to induce the decay.
is
Q = (0.005812u)×(931MeV / u)
In alpha decay, why does = 5.41 MeV
Note the unstable nucleus emit
This disintegration energy Q appears as
2 He nucleus? Why it does
4
not emit four separate nucleons? the kinetic energy of α particle and the
After all 24 He consists of two daughter nucleus.
protons and two neutrons. For In any decay, the total linear momentum
example, if 23892 U nucleus decays must be conserved.
into 90Th by emitting four separate
234
nucleons (two protons and two Total linear momentum of the parent
neutrons), then the disintegration nucleus = total linear momentum of the
energy Q for this process turns out daughter nucleus +α particle
to be negative. It implies that the Since before decay, the uranium nucleus is
total mass of products is greater at rest, its momentum is zero.
92 U ) nucleus.
than that of parent( 238
This kind of process cannot occur By applying conservation of momentum,
in nature because it would violate we get
conservation of energy. In any decay  
0 = mTh υTh + mα υα
process, the conservation of energy,  
mα υα = −mTh υTh
conservation of linear momentum
and conservation of angular It implies that the alpha particle and
momentum must be obeyed. daughter nucleus move in opposite
directions.

In magnitude mα υα = mTh υTh β− decay:
mTh In β- decay, the atomic number of the
The velocity of α particle υα = υ
mα Th nucleus increases by one but mass number
mTh remains the same. This decay is represented
Note that >1 , so υα > υTh . The ratio by
mα
of the kinetic energy of α particle to the A
X → Z +A1Y + e− + ν
Z (8.28)
daughter nucleus
K . Eα 1 mα υ2 α
2
It implies that the element X becomes Y
= by giving out an electron and antineutrino
K .ETh 1 m υ2
2 Th Th
( ν ). In otherwords, in each β- decay, one
By substituting, the value of υα into the
neutron in the nucleus of X is converted
above equation, we get
into a proton by emitting an electron (e–)
K .Eα mTh 228.02871 and antineutrino. It is given by
= = = 57
K .ETh mα 4.002603
n → p + e− + ν
The kinetic energy of α particle is 57 times
greater than the kinetic energy of the Where p -proton, ν -antineutrino.
daughter nucleus ( 228 Example: Carbon ( 146 C ) is converted
90Th ).
into nitrogen ( 147 N ) through β- decay.
The disintegration energy Q = total kinetic
energy of products 14
6 C → 147 N + e− + ν
K .Eα + K .ETh = 5.41 MeV
β+ decay:
57 K .ETh + K .ETh = 5.41MeV In β+ decay, the atomic number is
5.41 decreased by one and the mass number
K .ETh = MeV = 0.093MeV remains the same. This decay is represented by
58
K .Eα = 57 K .ETh = 57 × 0.093 = 5.301 MeV A
Z X → Z−A1Y + e + + ν
(8.29)
In fact, 98% of total kinetic energy is taken It implies that the element X becomes Y
by the α particle. by giving out an positron and neutrino ( ν ).
In otherwords, for each β+ decay, a proton
in the nucleus of X is converted into a
8.6.2 Beta decay neutron by emitting a positron (e+) and a
In beta decay, a radioactive nucleus emits neutrino. It is given by
either electron or positron. If electron (e–) is p → n + e+ + ν
emitted, it is called β- decay and if positron
(e+) is emitted, it is called β+ decay. The However a single proton (not inside
positron is an anti-particle of an electron any nucleus) cannot have β+ decay due to
whose mass is same as that of electron and energy conservation, because neutron mass
charge is opposite to that of electron – that is, is larger than proton mass. But a single
+e. Both positron and electron are referred neutron (not inside any nucleus) can have
to as beta particles. β- decay.

A very interesting application of alpha decay is in smoke detectors which
prevent us from any hazardous fire.
Battery holder Radioactive source Current
Alarm
housing detector
– Radioactive
+ source
+ –
Ions
Fire smoke
Buzzer
The smoke detector uses around 0.2 mg of man-made weak radioactive isotope called
americium ( 241
95 Am ). This radioactive source is placed between two oppositely charged
metal plates and α radiations from 241 95 Am continuously ionize the nitrogen, oxygen
molecules in the air space between the plates. As a result, there will be a continuous flow
of small steady current in the circuit. If smoke enters, the radiation is being absorbed by
the smoke particles rather than air molecules. As a result, the ionization and along with
it the current is reduced. This drop in current is detected by the circuit and alarm starts.
The radiation dosage emitted by americium is very much less than safe level, so it can
be considered harmless.
Example: Sodium ( 1122 Na ) is converted allowed discrete energies whereas in beta

into neon ( 1022 Ne ) through β+ decay. decay, it was found that the beta particle
22 22 (i.e, electron) have a continuous range of
11 Na → 10 Ne + e + + ν
energies. But the conservation of energy and
It is important to note that the electron momentum gives specific single values for
or positron which comes out from nuclei electron energy and the recoiling nucleus
during beta decay never present inside the Y. It seems that the conservation of energy,
nuclei rather they are produced during the momentum are violated and could not be
conversion of neutron into proton or proton explained why energy of beta particle have
into neutron inside the nucleus. continuous range of values. So beta decay
Neutrino: remained as a puzzle for several years.
After a detailed theoretical and
Initially, it was thought that during beta
experimental study, in 1931 W.Pauli
decay, a neutron in the parent nucleus is
proposed a third particle which must be
converted to the daughter nuclei by emitting
present in beta decay to carry away missing
only electron as given by
energy and momentum. Fermi later named
A
Z X→ A
Y + e−
Z +1 (8.30) this particle the neutrino (little neutral one)
since it has no charge, have very little mass.
But the kinetic energy of electron
For many years, the neutrino (symbol ν
coming out of the nucleus did not match
, Greek nu) was hypothetical and could
with the experimental results. In alpha
not be verified experimentally. Finally, the
decay, the alpha particle takes only certain

neutrino was detected experimentally in an electron of maximum of energy
1956 by Fredrick Reines and Clyde Cowan. 13.4 MeV.
Later Reines received Nobel prize in physics (2) it undergoes beta decay to an excited
in the year 1995 for his discovery. state of carbon ( 126 C * ) by emitting an
The neutrino has the following properties electron of maximum energy 9.0 MeV
· It has zero charge followed by gamma decay to ground
· It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino. state by emitting a photon of energy
· Recent experiments showed that the 4.4 MeV.
neutrino has very tiny mass. It is represented by
12
· It interacts very weakly with the matter. 5 B → 126 C + e− + ν
Therefore, it is very difficult to detect. In 12
C * → 126 C + γ
fact, in every second, trillions of neutrinos 6
coming from the sun are passing through

In this decay process, the
our body without any interaction. daughter nucleus is in an
excited state, denoted by
12C∗, and the beta decay is
8.6.3 Gamma decay 6
followed by a gamma decay.
In α and β decay, the daughter
nucleus is in the excited state most 12B
5
of the time. The typical life time of
excited state is approximately 10-11s. e–
So this excited state nucleus immediately 13.4 MeV
ENERGY
returns to the ground state or lower energy e– 12C∗

6
state by emitting highly energetic photons
4.4 MeV γ
called γ rays. In fact, when the atom is in
the excited state, it returns to the ground 12C
6
state by emitting photons of energy in the
order of few eV. But when the excited state In this decay process, the
nucleus returns to its ground state, it emits daughter nucleus 126 C is left
in the ground state.
a highly energetic photon (γ rays) of energy
in the order of MeV. The gamma decay is Figure 8.25 Gamma decay
given by
A
Z X * → ZA X + gamma ( γ ) rays (8.31)
Here the asterisk(*) means excited state 8.6.4 Law of radioactive

nucleus. In gamma decay, there is no change decay
in the mass number or atomic number of In the previous section, the decay
the nucleus. process of a single radioactive nucleus was
Boron ( 125 B ) has two beta decay modes as discussed. In practice, we have bulk material
shown in Figure 8.25: of radioactive sample which contains a
(1) it undergoes beta decay directly into vast number of the radioactive nuclei and
ground state carbon ( 126 C ) by emitting not all the radioactive nucleus in a sample

decay at the same time. It decays over a
N
 ln N  = −λt
  N0
period of time and this decay is basically a
 
random process. It implies that we cannot ln  N  = −λt
predict which nucleus is going to decay or  N 0 
rather we can determine like probabilistic Taking exponentials on both sides, we get
basis (like tossing a coin). We can calculate
approximately how many nuclei in a sample N = N 0 e−λt (8.35)
are decayed over a period of time.
[Note: e ln x = e y ⇒ x = e y ]
At any instant t, the number of decays
 dN  Equation (8.35) is called the law of
per unit time, called rate of decay   is radioactive decay. Here N denotes the
dt
proportional to the number of nuclei ( N ) at number of undecayed nuclei present at any
the same instant. time t and N 0 denotes the number of nuclei
dN at initial time t=0. Note that the number of
∝N
dt atoms is decreasing exponentially over the
By introducing a proportionality time. This implies that the time taken for all
constant, the relation can be written as the radioactive nuclei to decay will be infinite.
Equation (8.35) is plotted in Figure 8.26.
dN = −λN (8.32)
dt N0
Number of undecayed nuclei
N = N0e–λt
Here proportionality constant λ is called
decay constant which is different for different
radioactive sample and the negative sign in N0/2
the equation implies that the N is decreasing
with time. N0/4
By rewriting the equation (8.32), we get N0/8
N0/16
dN = −λNdt (8.33) T1/2 2T1/2 3T1/2 4T1/2 Time t

Here dN represents the number of nuclei Figure 8.26 Law of radioactive decay
decaying in the time interval dt.
Let us assume that at time t = 0 s, the We can also define another useful
number of nuclei present in the radioactive quantity called activity (R) or decay rate
sample is N 0 . By integrating the equation which is the number of nuclei decayed per
(8.33), we can calculate the number of dN
second and it is denoted as R = . Note
undecayed nuclei N at any time t. dt
From equation (8.33), we get that activity R is a positive quantity.
From equation (8.35), we get
dN = −λ dt
N (8.34)
R = dN = λN 0 e−λt (8.36)
N t
dt
dN = − λ dt
∫ N ∫
N0 0 R = R0 e−λt (8.37)

where R0 = λN 0 initially present to reduce to one half of
the initial amount.
The equation (8.37) is also equivalent
The half-life is the important
to radioactive law of decay. Here R0 is
characteristic of every radioactive sample.
the activity of the sample at t=0 and R
Some radioactive nuclei are known to have
is the activity of the sample at any time t.
half-life as long as 1014 years and some
From equation (8.37), activity also shows
nucleus have very shorter life time (10-14s).
exponential decay behavior. The activity R
We can express half-life in terms of the
also can be expressed in terms of number of
decay constant. At t = T1/ 2 , the number of
undecayed atoms present at any time t.
N0
− λt
From equation (8.37), since N = N 0 e , undecayed nuclei N = .
2
we write By substituting this value in to the
R = λN (8.38) equation (8.35), we get
N0
Equation (8.35) implies that the activity = N 0 e−λT1/2
2
at any time t is equal to the product of decay
constant and number of undecayed nuclei 1 = e−λT1/2 or e λT1/2 = 2
2
at the same time t. Since N decreases over
Taking logarithm on both sides and
time, R also decreases.
rearranging the terms,
The SI unit of activity R is Becquerel and
one Becquerel (Bq) is equal to one decay per
T1/2 = ln 2 = 0.6931 (8.39)
second. There is also another standard unit λ λ
for the activity called Curie(Ci).
1 Curie =1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays per second One should not think that
Note shorter half-life material
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
is safer than longer half-
life material because it will not last
long. The shorter half-life sample will
Initially one curie was
Note defined as number of decays
have higher activity and it is more
‘radioactive’ which is more harmful.
per second in 1 g of radium
and it is equal to 3.7 × 1010 decays/s. If the number of atoms present at t=0
N0
is N 0 , then atoms remain undecayed
2
N0
in first half-life and atoms remain
8.6.5 Half-life 4
undecayed after second half life and so on.
It is difficult to calculate the time taken
In general, after n half-lives, the number of
by a given a sample of N atoms to decay.
nuclei remaining undecayed is given by
However, we can calculate the time taken by
n
the given sample of atoms to reduce some  1
N =   N0 (8.40)
fraction of the initial amount.  2
We can define the half-life T1/ 2 as the where n can be integer or non-integer.
time required for the number of atoms Since the activity of radioactive sample also

obeys the exponential decay law, we can also Using mean life, the half-life can be
write an equation for an activity similar to rewritten as
equation (8.36).
T1/2 = t ln 2 = 0.6931 t (8.44)
After n half-lives, the activity or decay
rate of any radioactive sample is
Mean life : Not for examination
n
 1 The integration in the equation (8.42)
R =   R0 (8.41)
 2 can be performed using integration by
parts.
Mean life (τ):
∞ ∞
When the radioactive nucleus undergo
∫ λN t e λN 0 ∫ t e−λt dt
− λt
0 dt
the decay, the nucleus which disintegrates
t= 0
= 0
first has zero life time and the nucleus which N0 N0
decay last has an infinite lifetime. The actual ∞
life time for each nucleus varies from zero t = λ ∫ t e−λt dt
to infinity. Therefore, it is meaningful to 0
define average life or mean life time t, that u=t dv = e−λt dt

the nucleus survives before it decays.
The mean life time of the nucleus is the ∞  t e−λt 
∞ ∞
 e−λt 
t = λ∫ t e  
∫  −λ  dt
− λt
ratio of sum or integration of life times dt =λ   − λ
 −λ  0
of all nuclei to the total number nuclei 0 0
present initially. By substituting the limits, the first

The total number of nuclei decaying in term in the above equation becomes zero.
the time interval from t to t + ∆t is equal ∞
t = ∫ e−λt dt = − 1 e−λt  = 1

∞
to R∆t = λN 0e−λt ∆t . It implies that until the
time t, this R∆t number of nuclei lived. So 0
λ 0 λ
the life time of these R∆t nuclei is equal to be
tR∆t . In the limit ∆t ® 0 , the total life time
of all the nuclei would be the integration of E X A M P L E 8. 1 2
tRdt from the limit t = 0 to t = ∞ .
Mean life Calculate the number of nuclei of carbon-14
undecayed after 22,920 years if the initial
∞ ∞ number of carbon-14 atoms is 10,000. The
∫ t [ Rdt ] ∫ t l N 0 e − l t dt  half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years.
t=
0
= 0
(8.42)
N0 N0 Solution

After a few integration (refer box item), To get the time interval in terms of half-
the expression for mean life time, life,
t 22, 920 yr
n= = =4
1 T1/ 2 5730 yr
t= (8.43)
l
The number of nuclei remaining undecayed
Note that mean life and decay constant is after 22,920 years,
inversely proportional to each other.

n 4 (c) Activity after 2 hours can be
 1  1
N =   N 0 =   × 10, 000 calculated in two different ways:
 2  2
Method 1: R = R0 e–λt
N = 625
At t = 2 hr = 7200 s
–3
R = 3.75 × 103 × e–7200 ×1.155 ×10
E X A M P L E 8. 13
R = 3.75 × 103 × 2.4 ×10–4 = 0.9 Ci
A radioactive sample has 2.6 µg of pure n
 
7 N which has a half-life of 10 minutes. Method 2: R =  1  R 0
13
(a) How many nuclei are present initially? 2

(b) What is the activity initially? (c) What 120 min
Here n = = 12
is the activity after 2 hours? (d) Calculate 10 min
mean life of this sample.  
12
R =  1  × 3.75×103 ≈ 0.9 Ci
2
Solution
(a) To find N0, we have to find the T1/2 10 × 60
number of 137 N atoms in 2.6µg . The (d) mean life t = =
0.6931 0.6931
atomic mass of nitrogen is 13. Therefore, = 865.67 s
13 g of 137 N contains Avogadro number
( 6.02 × 1023 ) of atoms.
8.6.6 Carbon dating
In 1 g, the number of 13
7 N is equal to be
6.02 ´1023 atoms The interesting application of beta decay
. So the number of 13
N
13 7
is radioactive dating or carbon dating. Using
atoms in 2.6µg is this technique, the age of an ancient object
can be calculated. All living organisms
23
N 0 = 6.02 ×10 × 2.6 ×10−6 = 12.04 ×1016 atoms absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from air
13
to synthesize organic molecules. In this
(b) To find the initial activity R0 , we absorbed CO2, the major part is 126 C and very
have to evaluate decay constant λ small fraction ( 1.3 × 10−12 ) is radioactive 146 C
0.6931 = 0.6931 = 1.155×10−3 s−1 whose half-life is 5730 years.
λ=
T1/2 10 × 60 Carbon-14 in the atmosphere is always
decaying but at the same time, cosmic
Therefore
rays from outer space are continuously
R0 = λN 0 = 1.155×10-3 ×12.04 ×1016
bombarding the atoms in the atmosphere
=13.90 ×1013 decays/s which produces 146 C . So the continuous
= 13.90 ×1013 Bq production and decay of 146 C in the
atmosphere keep the ratio of 146 C to 126 C
In terms of a curie, always constant. Since our human body,
13 tree or any living organism continuously
R 0 = 13.90 ×1010 = 3.75×103 Ci absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, the ratio
3.7 ×10
of 146 C to 126 C in the living organism is also
since 1Ci = 3.7 ×1010Bq
nearly constant. But when the organism

dies, it stops absorbing CO2. Since 146 C starts Solution
to decay, the ratio of 146 C to 126 C in a dead To calculate the age, we need to know the
organism or specimen decreases over the initial activity (R0) of the characol (when
years. Suppose the ratio of 146 C to 126 C in the the sample was alive).
ancient tree pieces excavated is known, then
the age of the tree pieces can be calculated. The activity R of the sample
R = R0 e−λt (1)
E X A M P L E 8. 14
To find the time t, rewriting the above
Keezhadi (கீழடி), a small hamlet, has R
equation (1), e λt = 0
become one of the very important R
archeological places of Tamilandu. It is By taking the logarithm on both sides, we
located in Sivagangai district. A lot of R 
artefacts (gold coins, pottery, beads, iron get t = 1 ln  0  (2)
λ  R 
tools, jewellery and charcoal, etc.) have
Here R = 38 decays/s=38 Bq.
been unearthed in Keezhadi which have
given substantial evidence that an ancient To find decay constant, we use the equation
urban civilization had thrived on the banks
λ = 0.6931 = 0.6931
of river Vaigai. To determine the age of T1/2 5730 yr × 3.156 ×107 s / yr
those materials, the charcoal of 200 g sent ∴
for carbon dating is given in the following [ 1yr = 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60 s = 3.156 × 107 s]
figure (b). The activity of 146 C is found to be λ = 3.83×10−12 s−1
38 decays/s. Calculate the age of charcoal.
To find the initial activity R0 , we use
the equation R0 = λN 0 . Here N 0 is the
number of carbon-14 atoms present in
the sample when it was alive. The mass of
the characol is 200 g. In 12 g of carbon,
there are 6.02 × 1023 carbon atoms. So 200
g contains,

6.02 ×1023 atoms / mol
× 200 ≈ 1×1025 atoms
Figure (a) Keezhadi – excavation site 12 g / mol
When the tree(sample) was alive, the ratio
of 146 C to 126 C is 1.3 × 10−12 . So the total
number of carbon-14 atoms is given by
N 0 = 1×1025 ×1.3×10−12 = 1.3×1013 atoms
The initial activity
R0 = 3.83×10−12 ×1.3×1013 ≈ 50 decays / s
= 50 Bq
Figure (b) – Characol which was sent for By substituting the value of R0 and λ in the
carbon dating equation (2), we get

1  50  electron, and antineutrino with the half life
t= × ln  
3.83 × 10 −12
 38  of 13 minutes.
Neutrons are classified according to their
t = 0.27 ×1012 ≈7 × 1010 sec kinetic energy as (i) slow neutrons (0 to 1000 eV)
3.83 (ii) fast neutrons (0.5 MeV to 10 MeV).
In years The neutrons with average energy of about
7 ×1010 s 0.025 eV in thermal equilibrium are called
t= ≈ 2200 years
3.156 ×107 s / yr thermal neutron, because at 298K, the
thermal energy kT � 0.025eV . Slow and fast
In fact, the excavated materials were sent
neutrons play a vital role in nuclear reactors.
for carbon dating to USA by Archeological
Department of Tamilnadu and the report 8.7
confirmed that the age of Keezhadi NUCLEAR FISSION
artefacts lies between 2200 years to 2500
years (Sangam era- 400 BC to 200 BC).
In 1939, German scientists Otto Hahn
The Keezhadi excavations experimentally
and F. Strassman discovered that when
proved that urban civilization existed in
uranium nucleus is bombarded with a
Tamil Nadu even 2000 years ago!
neutron, it breaks up into two smaller nuclei
of comparable masses with the release of
8.6.7 Discovery of Neutrons energy. The process of breaking up of the
nucleus of a heavier atom into two smaller
In 1930, two German physicists Bothe
nuclei with the release of a large amount of
and Becker found that when beryllium
energy is called nuclear fission. The fission
was bombarded with α particles, highly
is accompanied by the release of neutrons.
penetrating radiation was emitted. This
The energy that is released in the nuclear
radiation was capable of penetrating the
fission is of many orders of magnitude
thick layer of lead and was unaffected by
greater than the energy released in chemical
the electric and magnetic fields. Initially, it
reactions.
was thought as γ radiation. But in the year
Uranium undergoes fission reaction in
1932, James Chadwick discovered that those
90 different ways. The most common fission
radiations are not EM waves but they are
reactions of 235
92 U nuclei are shown here.
particles of mass little greater than the mass
of the proton and had no charge. He called U + 01n → U * → 141
56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n + Q
235 236 92 1
them as neutrons. The above reaction can

92 92
(8.45)
be written as
9
Be + 24 He → 126 C + 01n U + 01n →
235
92 U * → 140
236
92 54 Xe + 38 Sr + 2 0 n + Q
94 1

4
(8.46)
where 01n denotes neutron.
Here Q is energy released during the
Neutrons are stable inside the nucleus.
decay of each uranium nuclei. When the
But outside the nucleus they are unstable. If
slow neutron is absorbed by the uranium
the neutron comes out of the nucleus (free
nuclei, the mass number increases by one
neutron), it decays with emission of proton,
and goes to an excited state 236
92 U . But this
*

excited state does not last longer than 10-12s Mass defect ∆m = 236.054398 u – 235.829095 u
and decay into two daughter nuclei along = 0.225303 u
with 2 or 3 neutrons. From each reaction,
So the energy released in each fission =
on an average, 2.5 neutrons are emitted. It is
0.225303 × 931MeV ≈ 200 MeV
shown in Figure 8.27
n
This energy first appears as kinetic
Neutron
capture
energy of daughter nuclei and neutrons. But
later, this kinetic energy is transferred to the
surrounding matter as heat.
Chain reaction:
When one 235
92 U nucleus undergoes fission,
Excited
nucleus
the energy released might be small. But
from each fission reaction, three neutrons
are released. These three neutrons cause
further fission in another three 235 92 U nuclei
Fission which in turn produce nine neutrons. These
n Daughter nine neutrons initiate fission in another 27
Neutrons nuclei
92 U nuclei and so on. This is called a chain
235
n reaction and the number of neutrons goes on

n increasing almost in geometric progression.
It is shown in Figure 8.28.
Figure 8.27 Nuclear fission There are two kinds of chain reactions:
(i) uncontrolled chain reaction (ii) controlled
Energy released in fission: chain reaction. In an uncontrolled chain
We can calculate the energy (Q) released reaction, the number of neutrons multiply
in each uranium fission reaction. We choose indefinitely and the entire amount of energy
the most favorable fission which is given in released in a fraction of second.
the equation (8.45). The atom bomb is an example of nuclear
fission in which uncontrolled chain reaction
235
92 U + 01n → 236 * 141 92 1
92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n + Q occurs. Atom bombs produce massive
destruction for mankind. During World
Mass of 235
U = 235.045733 u
92
War II, in the year 1946 August 6 and 9, USA
Mass of 01n = 1.008665 u dropped two atom bombs in two places of
Japan, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. As a result,
Total mass of reactant = 236.054398 u
lakhs of people were killed and the two cities
Mass of 141
56 Ba = 140.9177 u were completely destroyed. Even now the
people who are living in those places have
Mass of 92
Kr = 91.8854 u
36
side effects caused by the explosion of atom
Mass of 3 neutrons = 3.025995 u bombs.
The total mass of products = 235.829095 u It is possible to calculate the typical
energy released in a chain reaction. In the

One incoming neutron
causes a fission event in
a 235U nucleus.
235 U
92
92Kr
36
141
56 Ba 135
Several neutrons
138I 51 I
53
from the initial 138Xe 98 Nb
54 41
fission event cause 95Y
fission in additional 95 39
235U nuclei. 38Sr
The number of neutrons

and the number of fission 235
events grow rapidly. 92 U
Figure 8.28 Nuclear chain reaction
first step, one neutron initiates the fission E X A M P L E 8. 1 5

of one nucleus by producing three neutrons Calculate the amount of energy released
and energy of about 200 MeV. In the second when 1 kg of 235 92 U undergoes fission
step, three nuclei undergo fission, in third reaction.
step nine nuclei undergo fission, in fourth
step 27 nucleus undergo fission and so Solution
on. In the 100th step, the number of nuclei 235 g of 235
92 U has 6.02 × 10 atoms. In one
23
which undergoes fission is around 2.5 × 1040 gram of 235

92 U , the number of atoms is equal
. The total energy released after 100th step
6.02 × 1023
is 2.5 × 1040 × 200MeV = 8 × 1029 J . It is really to = 2.56 × 1021 .
235
an enormous amount of energy which is
equivalent to electrical energy required in So the number of atoms in 1 kg of U=
235
92
2.56 × 10 × 1000 = 2.56 × 10
21 24
Tamilnadu for several years.
If the chain reaction is controllable, Each 235
92 U nucleus releases 200 MeV of
then we can harvest an enormous amount energy during the fission. The total energy
of energy for our needs. It is achieved in a released by 1kg of 235
92 U is
controlled chain reaction. In the controlled Q = 2.56 × 1024 × 200 MeV = 5.12 × 1026 MeV
chain reaction, the average number of
neutron released in each stage is kept as one By converting in terms of joules,
such that it is possible to store the released Q = 5.12 × 1026 × 1.6 × 10 −13 J = 8.192 × 1013 J .
energy. In nuclear reactors, the controlled
In terms of Kilowatt hour,
chain reaction is achieved and the produced
8.192 × 1013
energy is used for power generation or for Q= = 2.27 × 107 kWh
3.6 × 106
research purpose.

This is enormously large energy which is with plutonium or polonium is used as the
enough to keep 100 W light bulb operating neutron source. During fission of 235 92 U , only
for 30,000 years. To produce this much energy fast neutrons are emitted but the probability of
through chemical reaction, around 20,000 tons initiating fission by it in another nucleus is very
of TNT(tri nitro toluene) has to be exploded. low. Therefore, slow neutrons are preferred for
Nuclear reactor: sustained nuclear reactions.
Nuclear reactor is a system in which the Moderators: The moderator is a material

nuclear fission takes place in a self-sustained used to convert fast neutrons into slow
controlled manner and the energy produced is neutrons. Usually the moderators are chosen
used either for research purpose or for power in such a way that it must be very light nucleus
generation. The first nuclear reactor was built having mass comparable to that of neutrons.
in the year 1942 at Chicago, USA by physicist Hence, these light nuclei undergo collision
Enrico Fermi. The main parts of a nuclear with fast neutrons and the speed of the
reactor are fuel, moderator and control rods. neutron is reduced (Note that a billiard ball
In addition to this, there is a cooling system striking a stationary billiard ball of equal mass
which is connected with power generation set would itself be stopped but the same billiard
up. ball bounces off almost with same speed when
it strikes a heavier mass. This is the reason for
Fuel: The fuel is fissionable material,
using lighter nuclei as moderators). Most of
usually uranium or plutonium. Naturally
the reactors use water, heavy water (D2O) and
occurring uranium contains only 0.7% of
graphite as moderators. The blocks of uranium
92 U and 99.3% are only 92 U . So the 92 U
235 238 238
stacked together with blocks of graphite (the
must be enriched such that it contains at least
moderator) to form a large pile is shown in the
2 to 4% of 235
92 U . In addition to this, a neutron
Figure 8.29 (a) & (b).
source is required to initiate the chain reaction
for the first time. A mixture of beryllium
Control rods Hot liquid

Heat exchanger
Shielding Steam
Electric
Turbine
generator
Water
Pump
Uranium containers Pump
Cold liquid
Figure 8.29 (a) Block diagram of Nuclear reactor

Hot water Heat Electric
(or liquid exchanger generator
Core Steam turbine
(fuel and moderator) sodium) Steam
Water
Control
rods
Condenser
Containment
vessel (shielding) Pump
Pump
Shielding
Cooling water
Figure 8.29 (b) Schematic diagram of nuclear reactor
Control rods: The control rods are used to surrounded by a concrete wall of thickness of
adjust the reaction rate. During each fission, about 2 to 2.5 m.
on an average 2.5 neutrons are emitted and in
Cooling system:The cooling system
order to have the controlled chain reactions,
removes the heat generated in the reactor
only one neutron is allowed to cause another
core. Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid
fission and the remaining neutrons are
sodium are used as coolant since they have
absorbed by the control rods.
very high specific heat capacity and have large
Usually cadmium or boron acts as control
boiling point under high pressure. This coolant
rod material and these rods are inserted into
passes through the fuel block and carries away
the uranium blocks as shown in the Figure
the heat to the steam generator through heat
8.29 (a) and (b). Depending on the insertion
exchanger as shown in Figure 8.29(a) and (b).
depth of control rod into the uranium, the
The steam runs the turbines which produces
average number of neutrons produced per
electricity in power reactors.
fission is set to be equal to one or greater
than one. If the average number of neutrons
India has 22 nuclear reactors
produced per fission is equal to one, then Note in operation. Nuclear
reactor is said to be in critical state. In fact, all reactors are constructed in
the nuclear reactors are maintained in critical two places in Tamilnadu, Kalpakkam
state by suitable adjustment of control rods. If and Kudankulam. Even though
it is greater than one, then reactor is said to be nuclear reactors are aimed to cater to
in super-critical and it may explode sooner or our energy need, in practice nuclear
may cause massive destruction. reactors now are able to provide only
Shielding: For a protection against 2% of energy requirement of India.
harmful radiations, the nuclear reactor is

8.8 into heat. When the temperature is high
enough to initiate the thermonuclear fusion,
NUCLEAR FUSION
they start to release enormous energy which
tends to stabilize the star and prevents it
When two or more light nuclei (A<20) from further collapse.
combine to form a heavier nucleus, then
The sun’s interior temperature is around
it is called nuclear fusion. In the nuclear
1.5 × 107 K . The sun is converting 6 × 1011 kg
fusion, the mass of the resultant nucleus is
hydrogen into helium every second and it
less than the sum of the masses of original
has enough hydrogen such that these fusion
light nuclei. The mass difference appears as
lasts for another 5 billion years. When the
energy. The nuclear fusion never occurs at
hydrogen is burnt out, the sun will enter into
room temperature unlike nuclear fission.
new phase called red giant where helium
It is because when two light nuclei come
will fuse to become carbon. During this
closer to combine, it is strongly repelled by
stage, sun will expand greatly in size and all
the coulomb repulsive force.
its planets will be engulfed in it.
To overcome this repulsion, the two light
According to Hans Bethe, the sun is
nuclei must have enough kinetic energy
powered by proton-proton cycle of fusion
to move closer to each other such that the
reaction. This cycle consists of three steps
nuclear force becomes effective. This can
and the first two steps are as follows:
be achieved if the temperature is very much
1
greater than the value 107 K. When the 1 H + 11H → 12 H + e + + ν (8.44)
surrounding temperature reaches around
1
107K, lighter nuclei start fusing to form 1 H + 12 H → 23 He + γ (8.45)
heavier nuclei and this resulting reaction is
A number of reactions are possible in the
called thermonuclear fusion reaction.
third step. But the dominant one is
Energy generation in stars: 3
2 He + 23 He → 24 He + 11H + 11H (8.46)
The natural place where nuclear fusion
occurs is the core of the stars, since its The overall energy production in the
temperature is of the order of 107K. In fact, above reactions is about 27 MeV. The
the energy generation in every star is only radiation energy we received from the sun is
through thermonuclear fusion. Most of the due to these fusion reactions.
stars including our Sun fuse hydrogen into
helium and some stars even fuse helium into Elementary particles:
heavier elements.
An atom has a nucleus surrounded by
The early stage of a star is in the form electrons and nuclei is made up of protons
of cloud and dust. Due to their own and neutrons. Till 1960s, it was thought
gravitational pull, these clouds fall inward. that protons, neutrons and electrons are
As a result, its gravitational potential energy fundamental building blocks of matter. In
is converted to kinetic energy and finally 1964, physicist Murray Gellman and George

Zweig theoretically proposed that protons in nature. Our planets are bound to the sun
and neutrons are not fundamental particles; through gravitational force of the sun. In +2
in fact they are made up of quarks. These volume 1, we have learnt that between two
quarks are now considered elementary charges there exists electromagnetic force
particles of nature. Electrons are fundamental and it plays major role in most of our day-to-
or elementary particles because they are day events. In this unit, we have learnt that
not made up of anything. In the year 1968, between two nucleons, there exists a strong
the quarks were discovered experimentally nuclear force and this force is responsible
by Stanford Linear Accelerator Center for stability of the nucleus. In addition
(SLAC), USA. There are six quarks namely, to these three forces, there exists another
up, down, charm, strange, top and bottom fundamental force of nature called the weak
and their antiparticles. All these quarks have force. This weak force is even shorter in
fractional charges. For example, charge of range than nuclear force. This force plays
2
up quark is + e and that of down quark is an important role in beta decay and energy
3
1
− e. production of stars. During the fusion of
3 hydrogen into helium in sun, neutrinos and
According to quark model, proton is enormous radiations are produced through
made up of two up quarks and one down
weak force. The detailed mechanism of
quark and neutron is made up of one up
weak force is beyond the scope of this book
quark and two down quarks as shown in the
and for further reading, appropriate books
Figure 8.30.
can be referred.
u d Gravitational, electromagnetic, strong
+2e –1e and weak forces are called fundamental
3 3
forces of nature. It is very interesting to
d d u u
realize that, even for our day-to-day life, we
–1e –1e +2e +2e
3 3 3 3 require these four fundamental forces. To
put it in simple words: We are in the Earth
Neutron Proton
because of Earth’s gravitational attraction
Figure 8.30 Constituents of nucleons on our body. We are standing on the surface
of the earth because of the electromagnetic
The study of elementary particles is force between atoms of the surface of the
called particle physics and it is an active area earth with atoms in our foot. The atoms in
of research even now. Till date, more than our body are stable because of strong nuclear
20 Nobel prizes have been awarded in the force. Finally, the lives of species in the earth
field of particle physics. depend on the solar energy from the sun
Fundamental forces of nature: and it is due to weak force which plays vital
It is known that there exists gravitational role during nuclear fusion reactions going
force between two masses and it is universal on in the core of the sun.

SUMMARY
A device used to study the conduction of electricity through gases is known as gas
discharge tube
Charge per unit mass is known as specific charge or normalized charge, and it is
independent of gas used and also nature of electrodes used
The minimum distance between alpha particle and centre of the nucleus just before
it gets reflected back by 180° is defined as distance of closest approach r0
The impact parameter (b) (see Figure 8.12) is defined as the perpendicular distance
between the centre of the gold nucleus and the direction of velocity vector of alpha
particle when it is at a large distance.
According to Bohr atom model, angular momentum is quantized.
2
The radius of the orbit in Bohr atom model is rn = a0 n
Z
ε 0h 2
The radius of first orbit is a0 = = 0.529 Å also known as Bohr radius
πme 2
The velocity of electron in nth orbit is υn = h Z
2πma0 n
The fine structure constant is α = 1 which is a dimensionless constant
137 4 2
The total energy of electron in the nth orbit is En = − me2 2 Z2 = −13.6 12 eV
8 ε 0h n n
The energy required to excite an electron from the lower energy state to any higher
energy state is known as excitation energy and corresponding potential supplied is
known as excitation potential.
The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom which is in
ground state is known as ionization energy.
The potential difference through which an electron should be accelerated to get
ionization energy is known as ionization potential.
The wavelength of spectral lines of Lyman series lies in ultra-violet region
The wavelength of spectral lines of Balmer series lies in visible region while those of
Paschen and Brackett series lie in infra-red region
The nucleus of element X having atomic number Z and mass number A is represented
by ZA X
The radius of nucleus (Z > 10) of mass number A is given by R = R0 A1/ 3 where
R0 = 1.2 F
The density of nucleus ρ = 2.3×1017 kg m−3
If M, mp and mn are masses of a nucleus ( ZA X ), proton and neutron respectively , then
the mass defect is ∆m = ( Zm p + Nmn ) − M
The binding energy of nucleus B.E = ( Zm p + Nmn − M ) c 2
The binding energy per nucleon is maximum for iron which is 8.8 MeV.

Alpha decay: ZA X → A−4
Y + 24 He
Z −2
A
β- decay: Z X → Z +A1Y + e− + ν
A
β+ decay: Z X → Z−A1Y + e + + ν
Gamma decay: ZA X * → ZA X + γ
Law of radioactive decay: N = N 0 e−λt
n
 1
In general, after n half lives, the number of nuclei undecayed is N =   N 0
 2
The relation between half-life and decay constant T1/2 = ln 2
λ
If a heavier nucleus decays into lighter nuclei, it is called nuclear fission
If two lighter nuclei fuse to heavier nuclei, it is called nuclear fusion
In nuclear reactors, the nuclear chain reaction is controlled. In stars, the energy
generation is through nuclear fusion.

CONCEPT MAP
Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Atom models Nucleus
J.J. Thomson Properties
α - scattering Binding
experiment energy
Rutherford Radioactive
decays
Bohr atom Nuclear

model fusion & fission
Hydrogen Elementary
spectrum particles

EVALUATION
I Multiple
Multiple Choice
choice Questions
questions (c) B
Vwis increased by 14.4 times
V
(a) (b) a
1. (d) B
Vais decreased by 14.4 times
Vw
1. Suppose
The speed an of
alpha particle
light in anaccelerated
isotropic
by a potential
medium depends on,of V volt is allowed to 7. Theλratio of the wavelengthsVa λfor the
(c) w (d) a
collide with a nucleus whose atomic transition
λa from n =2 to n = V1w λinw Li++,
(a) its intensity
number is Z, then the distance of 6. He
Starsand H is due to,
+
(b)its wavelength twinkle

closest approach of alpha particle to (a)1: 2:ection
3 (b) 1: 4: 9
(a) refl
the nucleus is of propagation
(c) the nature
(c)
(d) the Zmotion of the source w.r.to (b) 3:2:1 (d) 4: 9: 36
total internal reflection
V 8. Th
(a) 14
mediumV. 4 Å (b) 14 . 4 Å (c)erefraction
electric potential between a
Z proton and an electron is given by
2. A rod ofZ length 10 cm lies alongV the (d) polarisation
(c) 1.44 axis
Å of a concave (d) 1mirror
.44 Åof r
principal V Z V = V0 alnbiconvex
7. When lens rof
 r  , where is a constant.
0 glass having
focal length 10 cm in such
2. In a hydrogen atom, the electron a way that refractive index 1.47 is dipped in a
0
Assume that Bohr atom model is
its end closer
revolving in tothe
the fourth
pole is 20 cm away
orbit, has liquid, it acts as a plane sheet of glass.
applicable to potential, then variation
from the
angular mirror. The
momentum equallength
to of the This implies that the liquid must have
of radius of nth orbit rn with the principal
image is, (AIPMT Main 2012) refractive index,
(a) h (b) h quantum number n is
(a) 2.5 cm π 5cm
(b) (a) less than one
1
4hcm
(c) 10 2h15cm
(d) (a) rn ∝ than that of glass (b) rn ∝ n
(b) less
(c) (d) n
π π
3. An object is placed in front of a convex (c) greater than that of glass
1
3. mirror
Atomicofnumber of H-like
focal length of atom
f andwith
the (c) n ∝ 2to that of glass (d) rn ∝ n
(d) requal
2
ionization for n = 1 of n
maximum potential
and minimum 122.4 Vdistance is
8. If
Thetheradius of radius
curvature
9. nuclear of 27ofAl curved
is 3.6
an object
(a) 1 from
(b) 2 the (c)mirror
3 such
(d) 4 that the surfacethe at aapproximate
thin planoconvex lensradius
is 10
fermi, nuclear
image
4. Th formed
e ratio between is real
the fiand magnified.
rst three orbits cm and
of 64
Cu theis refractive index is 1.5. If the
(IEE Main 2009)]
of hydrogen atom is plane
(a) 2.4surface is silvered, then (b) 1.2the focal
(a) 1:2:3
(a) 2f and c c and ∞
(b) 2:4:6
(b) length will be,
(c) 4.8 (d)3.6
(c) 1:4:9
(c) f and O (d) 1:3:5
(d) None of (a) 5 cm (b) 10 cm
10. The nucleus is approximately spherical
these (c) 15 cm Then the surface (d) 20area
cm of
5. The charge of cathode rays is in shape.
4. For light incident from air onto a slab of 9. nucleus
An air bubble
(a) positive (b) negative havinginmass glassnumber
slab of refractive
A varies
refractive index 2. Maximum possible index 1.5 (near normal incidence) is 5
(c) neutral (d) not defined as
angle of refraction is, cm deep
6. In J.J. Th omson e/m experiment,oa beam (a) A2 / 3 when viewed from (b)one
A4 /surface
3
(a) 30o (b) 45 and 3 cm deep when viewed from the

of electron is replaced by that of muons (c) A1/ 3 (d) A5/3
(c) 60o (d) 90o opposite face. The thickness of the slab
(particle with same charge as that of 11. The mass of a 37 Li nucleus is 0.042 u
5. If the velocity and wavelength is,
electrons but mass 208 times of light
that of less than the sum of the masses of all
in air is V and
electrons).a No defl λ and that in water
a ection condition is
is (a) 8 cm (b) 10 cm
its nucleons. The binding energy per
Vw and λwonly
achieved , thenif the refractive index of (c) 12 cmof 7 Li nucleus is nearly (d) 16 cm
nucleon
water is,
3
(a) B is increased by 208 times 10. (a)
A ray46of MeVlight travelling in(b) a transparent
5.6 MeV
(b) B is decreased by 208 times medium of refractive index n falls, on a
(c) 3.9MeV (d)23 MeV

12. M p denotes the mass of the proton Answers
and M n denotes mass of a neutron. 1) c 2) d 3) c 4) c 5) b
A given nucleus of binding energy B,
6) c 7) d 8) b 9) c 10) A
contains Z protons and N neutrons.
11) b 12) c 13) b 14) c 15) b
The mass M(N,Z) of the nucleus is
given by(where c is the speed of light)
(a) M ( N , Z ) = NM n + ZM p − Bc 2 II Short answer questions
(b) M ( N , Z ) = NM n + ZM p + Bc 2 1. What are cathode rays?.

2. Write the properties of cathode rays.
(c) M ( N , Z ) = NM n + ZM p − B / c 2
3. Give the results of Rutherford alpha
(d) M ( N , Z ) = NM n + ZM p + B / c 2 scattering experiment.
13. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass 4. Write down the postulates of Bohr
number A and atomic number Z) atom model.
emits 2α and 2 positrons. The ratio of
5. What is meant by excitation energy.
number of neutrons to that of proton
in the final nucleus will be 6. Define the ionization energy and
ionization potential.
A−Z −4 A− Z −2
(a) (b) 7. Write down the draw backs of Bohr
Z −2 Z −6
A− Z −4 A − Z − 12
atom model.
(c) (d) 8. What is distance of closest approach?
Z −6 Z −4
14. The half-life period of a radioactive 9. Define impact parameter.
element A is same as the mean life 10. Write a general notation of nucleus of
time of another radioactive element B. element X. What each term denotes?
Initially both have the same number of 11. What is isotope? Give an example.
atoms. Then 12. What is isotone? Give an example.
(a) A and B have the same decay rate 13. What is isobar? Give an example.
initially
14. Define atomic mass unit u.
(b) A and B decay at the same rate always
15. Show that nuclear density is almost
(c) B will decay at faster rate than A constant for nuclei with Z > 10.
(d) A will decay at faster rate than B. 16. What is mass defect?
15. A system consists of N 0 nucleus at 17. What is binding energy of a nucleus?
t=0. The number of nuclei remaining Give its expression.
after half of a half-life (that is, at time
1 18. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1
t = T1 ) atomic mass unit.
2 2
N0 N 19. Give the physical meaning of binding
(a) (b) 0 energy per nucleon.
2 2
20. What is meant by radioactivity?
N N
(c) 0 (d) 0
4 8

21. Give the symbolic representation of 9. Discuss the gamma decay process with
alpha decay, beta decay and gamma example.
decay. 10. Obtain the law of radioactivity.
22. In alpha decay, why the unstable 11. Discuss the properties of neutrino and
nucleus emits 24 He nucleus? Why it its role in beta decay.
does not emit four separate nucleons? 12. Explain the idea of carbon dating.
23. What is mean life of nucleus? Give the 13. Discuss the process of nuclear fission
expression. and its properties.
24. What is half-life of nucleus? Give the 14. Discuss the process of nuclear fusion
expression. and how energy is generated in stars?
25. What is meant by activity or decay 15. Describe the working of nuclear reactor
rate? Give its unit. with a block diagram.
26. Define curie. 16. Explain in detail the four fundamental
27. What are the constituent particles of forces.
neutron and proton? 17. Briefly explain the elementary particles
of nature.
III Long answer questions
1. Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment Exercises
to determine the specific charge of 1. Consider two hydrogen atoms HA
electron. and HB in ground state. Assume that
2. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop hydrogen atom HA is at rest and
experiment to determine the charge of hydrogen atom HB is moving with a
an electron. speed and make head-on collide on the
3. Derive the energy expression for stationary hydrogen atom HA. After
hydrogen atom using Bohr atom the strike, both of them move together.
model. What is minimum value of the kinetic
4. Discuss the spectral series of hydrogen energy of the moving hydrogen atom
atom. HB, such that any one of the hydrogen
5. Explain the variation of average atoms reaches one of the excitation
binding energy with the mass number state.
by graph and discuss its features. [Ans: 20.4 eV]
6. Explain in detail the nuclear force. 2. In the Bohr atom model, the frequency
7. Discuss the alpha decay process with of transitions is given by the following
example. expression
8. Discuss the beta decay process with 1 1 

v = Rc  2 − 2  , where n < m,
examples. n m 

Consider the following transitions: ratio of decayed numbers of A and B
Transitions m→n nuclei after 80 minutes.
1 [Ans: 5:4]
3→2
2 7. On your birthday, you measure the
2 →1
activity of the sample 210 Bi which has a
3 3 →1 half-life of 5.01 days. The initial activity
that you measure is 1µCi . (a) What is
Show that the frequency of these the approximate activity of the sample
transitions obey sum rule (which is on your next birthday? Calculate (b)
known as Ritz combination principle) the decay constant (c) the mean life (d)
[Ans: v3→2 + v2→1 = v3→1 ] initial number of atoms.
3. (a) A hydrogen atom is excited by [Ans: (a) 10-22 µCi (b) 1.6 × 10−6 s −1
radiation of wavelength 97.5 nm. Find
the principal quantum number of the (c) 7.24days (d) 2.31 × 1010 ]
excited state. 8. Calculate the time required for 60%
(b) Show that the total number of lines of a sample of radon undergo decay.
in emission spectrum is n(n -1) and Given T1/ 2 of radon =3.8 days
2
compute the total number of possible [Ans: 5.022 days]
lines in emission spectrum.
9. Assuming that energy released by
[Ans: (a) n =4 (b) 6 possible transitions]
the fission of a single 235 92 U nucleus
4. Calculate the radius of the earth if is 200MeV, calculate the number of
the density of the earth is equal to the fissions per second required to produce
density of the nucleus.[mass of earth 1 watt power.
5.97 × 1024 kg ]. [Ans: 3.125 × 1010 ]
[Ans: 180 m ]
10. Show that the mass of radium ( 22688 Ra )
5. Calculate the mass defect and the
with an activity of 1 curie is almost a
binding energy per nucleon of the
gram. Given T1/ 2 =1600 years.
47 Ag nucleus. [atomic mass of Ag =
108
107.905949] 11. Characol pieces of tree is found from

 ∆m = 0.990391u and  an archeological site. The carbon-14
Ans:  
 B.E = 8.5MeV / A  content of this characol is only 17.5%
that of equivalent sample of carbon
6. Half lives of two radioactive elements
from a living tree. What is the age of
A and B are 20 minutes and 40 minutes
tree?
respectively. Initially, the samples have
equal number of nuclei. Calculate the [Ans: 1.44 × 104 yr]

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Introduction to Modern Physics, 5. Physics for scientist and engineers with

H.S. Mani and G.K. Mehta, East-West modern physics, Serway and Jewett,
Press, New Delhi Brook/Coole publishers, 8th edition
2. Concepts of Modern Physics, Arthur 6. Physics for scientist and engineers with
Beiser, McGraw Hill, 6th edition modern physics, Paul Tipler and Gene
Mosca, Sixth edition, W.H.Freeman
3. Concepts of Physics – H. C. Verma,
and Company
Volume 2, Bharati Bhawan Publisher
4. Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday,
Resnick and Walker, Wiley Publishers,
10th edition

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UNIT

8 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

In this unit, the students are exposed to

8.1 In earlier classes, we have studied that

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tube appear with green colour. At this stage, A

called cathode rays, which are later found Battery

Properties of cathode rays Magnet

(1) Cathode rays possess energy and

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screen with zinc sulphide. eV = 1 mυ2 ⇒ e = υ

are accelerated from cathode to anode, the E

UNIT-8(XII-Physics_Vol-2).indd 141 8/3/2019 4:39:10 PM

Substituting the values on RHS, the The specific charge is

142 Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics

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Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics 143

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Around 400 B.C, Greek philosophers

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146 Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics

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Figure 8.11 Distance of closest approach

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++ Figure 8.14 The line spectrum of

Postulates of Bohr atom model:

148 Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics

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Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics 149

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150 Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics

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where nÎ . Since, ε0, h, e and π are

Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics 151

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 or the first orbit (ground state), the total

152 Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics

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Figure 8.20 Energy levels of a hydrogen atom

2  2  (1.6 ×10−19 C)2

Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics 153

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The Bohr atom model is derived with the is, µ m = mM

154 Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics

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Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics 155

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Total Energy (En ∝ n-2) –13.6 eV –3.4 eV –1.51 eV

156 Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics

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Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics 157

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Figure 8.21 Spectrum of an atom

or photographed, instead of a continuous photons. Once the electrons get sufficient

158 Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics

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The lowest energy level is

spectral lines of Balmer series which lies in

(c) Paschen series

Unit 8 Atomic and Nuclear physics 159

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or the first orbit (ground state), the total

8.4.2 I sotopes, isobars, and number 40 and different atomic number.

dN = −λNdt (8.33) T1/2 2T1/2 3T1/2 4T1/2 Time t