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A. Law of Conservation of Mass
- formulated by Antoine Lavoisier
(1743-1794)
- States that in a chemical reaction, the
mass of the substances produced
(product) is equal to the mass of the
substances reacted (reactant)
- “Mass can neither be created nor
destroyed by chemical means”
C. Law of Multiple Proportions
- proposed by John Dalton (1766 - 1844)
- states that if two elements can combine to
form more than one compound, the masses
of one of the elements that combine with a
mass of the other element are in fixed ratios
of whole numbers.
- for example, 100 g of carbon combines with
either 133.3 g or 266.6 g of oxygen (1:2)
- another example is hydrogen and oxygen,
which can form H2O and H2O2 (1:2)
“Nothing exists except atoms and empty
space. Everything else is opinion”
- Democritus
- He believed that matter is composed
tiny indivisible particle called atoms
(from the Greek word, atomos which
means “uncut”
B. Law of Definite Proportion
- proposed by Joseph Proust (1754 – 1826)
- states that any sample of a given
compound will always be composed of the
same elements in the same proportion by
mass
- Example: A 100-g water sample contains
89% oxygen and 11% hydrogen by mass
- Nitrous oxide “laughing gas” will always be
composed of 64% nitrogen and 36% oxygen
by mass
Chemistry is similar to cooking.
- You can use the same ingredients and
come up with different dishes
- For example, a cake can be made from
flour, eggs, baking powder and water
- The same ingredients can also be used to
make pancakes, crepes and even lumpia
wrappers
- It all depends on the proportion of each
ingredient
1. Elements are composed of small
particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of an element are identical,
having the same properties such as
mass, size and chemical properties.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms
of at least two different elements,
and the ratio of each element is an
integer or a simple fraction.
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4. A chemical reaction results from
rearrangement of the atoms of
reacting substances, giving new
combinations of atoms. Atoms can
neither be destroyed nor created in
a chemical reaction.
Thomson Atomic Model (1903)
 An atom consists of a diffuse cloud of
positive charge with the negative electrons
embedded randomly in it. This model is
often called PLUM (OR RAISIN)
PUDDING MODEL.
 Observed cathode ray (produced at the
negative electrode and repelled by the
negative pole of an applied electric field.
 Cathode ray was a stream of negatively
charged particles now called electrons
The Plum Pudding Model of the Atom
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Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model
- Even Dalton proposed the existence of
atom, he had no exact idea of what
they looked like
- He described it to be extremely small,
featureless and indestructible spheres
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Deflection of Cathode Rays by an Applied Electric
Field
Rutherford Atomic Model
(1911)
- Proposed a Nuclear Model of Atom
- An atom is mostly empty space, accounting
for the undeflected particles passing through,
but also containing a concentrated, dense
center (nucleus)
- large deflections are only possible if the center
contains most of the atom’s mass, thus,
accounting for the presence of positively
charged particles known as protons
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Radioactivity
Spontaneous emission of radiation
 Gamma () rays: high energy light
 Beta () particles: high speed electron
 Alpha () particles (He2+): 2+ charge,
charge twice that of electron and with
opposite sign. The mass of an  -
particle is 7300 times that of the Rutherford’s Experiment on -particle Bombardment of Metal
electron Foil

James Chadwick (1891 – 1974)

- Discovered neutrons
- Beryllium Foil Experiment
- He observed that there was less deflection of
particles, implying the existence of neutral
particles in the nucleus together with protons.
- Thus, the mass of the protons and neutrons
account for the atomic mass
Expected and Actual Results of Rutherford’s Experiment

The Modern View of Atomic

Bohr’s Planetary Model (1885-1962)
- Proposes that electron not only
surrounds the nucleus of the atom as
Rutherford proposed, but specifically
surrounds the nucleus in orbits
Structure
The atom contains:
 Electrons: move around the nucleus
(mass: 9.109410 X 10-28 g, Charge 1-)
 Protons: found in the nucleus, they have
a positive charge equal in magnitude to
the electron’s negative charge (mass:
1.6726 X 10-24 g, charge 1+)
 Neutrons: found in the nucleus, virtually
same mass as a proton but no charge.
(mass: 1.6749 X 10-24 g, charge: 0)

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Nuclear Atom Viewed in Cross Section
Molecules and Ions
 Chemical Bonds: The forces that hold atoms
together in compounds. H2O, NO, CO2
 Covalent bonds: Covalent bonds result from
atoms (nonmetal and nonmetal) sharing
electrons. Cl2
 Ionic bonds: Force of attraction between
oppositely charged ions (metal and nonmetal).
 Molecule: A collection of covalently-bonded
atoms. H2, O2
Ions
 A positive ion results from the loss of one
or more electrons.
 A negative ion results from the gain of
one or more electrons.
 Cation: A positive ion (Na+, Mg2+,)
 Anion: A negative ion (Cl-, O-2)
 Polyatomic ions: (C2H3O2- , NH4+)
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The Chemists’ Shorthand Atomic Symbols
Mass number  39
Atomic number  19
K  Element Symbol
Atomic number (Z): number of protons,
gives the symbol of the element (X)
Mass number (A): Total number of
protons and neutrons
Elemental form = Zero net charge
Therefore, # electrons = # of protons
Ions
 Ions: An ion is an atom or group of
atoms that has a net positive charge or
negative charge particle (an unequal
number of protons and electrons) is
obtained by removing or adding
electrons. Na+, Cl-
Isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons. In nature
most elements contain mixtures of isotopes
23 Na :
11
11 protons, 11 electrons, and 12 neutrons
24 Na :
11
11 protons, 11 electrons, and 13 neutrons
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Sample Problem

The radioactive decay of cobalt-60

emits gamma radiation, which is used to
kill microorganisms in raw food.
Determine the number of electrons,
protons and neutrons of the isotope.
Write its isotopic symbol.

Two Isotopes of Sodium

Practice Exercises

Bismuth-213 is an isotope used in Average Atomic Mass =

radiation therapy to treat leukemia, while (mass1 x % abundance) +
strontium-89 is used to treat bone (mass2 x % abundance) + ……..
metastasis. Write their isotopic symbols.
How many protons and neutrons do they
have?

Boron has two naturally occurring

isotopes: boron-10 with an atomic mass
of 10.0129 amu and 0.198 abundance:
and boron-11 with an atomic mass of
11.0093 amu and 0.802 abundance.
What is boron’s average atomic mass?
Write the isotopic symbol.