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Early History of Chemistry

 Greeks were the first to attempt to explain why
CHAPTER II chemical changes occur.
Alchemy dominated for 2000 years.
Atoms, Molecules and

– Several elements discovered.

Ions 
– Mineral acids prepared.
Robert Boyle was the first “chemist”.
– Performed quantitative experiments.
– Developed first experimental definition of an
element.

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The Discovery of Electrons J. J. Thomson (1898—1903)

 Postulated the existence of negatively charged
 J.J. Thomson –CRT experiment particles, that we now call electrons, using
cathode-ray tubes.
 Determined the charge-to-mass ratio of an
 Robert Millikan – Oil droplets experiment electron.
 The atom must also contain positive particles
that balance exactly the negative charge
carried by electrons.

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Early Experiments to
Cathode-ray tube Characterize the atom
 Measurement of electron weight
Robert Millikan (1868-1953)
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1923

Oil droplets experiment (1909)

m = 9.11X 10-31 Kg

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The Results from Ernest

Rutherford
 The majority of a particles penetrated the foil
undeflected.
 Some particles experienced slight deflections.
 A few (about one in every 20000) suffered
rather serious deflections as they penetrated
the foil.
 A similar number did not pass through the foil
at all but “bounced back” in the direction
from which they had come.

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Thomson’s model Rutherford’s model
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Electron – J.J. Thomson
Protons – Ernest Rutherford
Neutrons – James Chadwick
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The Model of Rutherford
 Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of an
atom are centered in a very small region called the
nucleus.
 The atom is mostly empty space.
 The magnitude of the positive charge is different for
different atoms and is approximately one half the
atomic weight of the element.
 There exist as many electrons outside the nucleus as
there are units of positive charge on the nucleus. The
atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
Henri Becquerel (1896)
 Discovered radioactivity by observing the
spontaneous emission of radiation by
uranium.
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903
 Three types of radioactive emission
exist:
– Gamma rays (ϒ) – high energy light
– Beta particles (β) – a high speed electron
– Alpha particles (α) – a particle with a 2+
charge 12
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Founder of Radioactivity The Atomic Theory

 Marie Sklodowska Curie ( Poland 1867-1934)  5th century, Democritus expressed the
Found new element polonium (Po) in 1898 belief that all matter consists of very
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 small, indivisible particles.
Found new element radium (Ra) in 1898
Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1911  “atomos” (meaning uncuttable or
indivisible)
Radiation – the emission and transmission
of energy through space in the form of waves.

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Modern Atomic Theory

 John Dalton (1808)
a) Elements are made up of very small particles called
atoms.
b) The atoms of a particular element are alike in size, mass
and structure.
c) The atoms of different elements differ in size, mass and
structure.
d) Atoms (particles) of one element combine with those of
another element in forming another kind of particle called
molecules of a compound.
e) Atoms are neither split nor divided during an ordinary
chemical reaction; only whole atoms unite with one John Dalton
another.

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Atoms, Molecules, Ions Atoms, Molecules, Ions

 Atoms: Smallest particle of an element that has all the
properties of matter:
– Protons- particles in the nucleus with positive charge
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)
– Electrons- particles orbiting around nucleus with negative charge
Joseph John Thompson, English physicist (1856-1940)
– Neutrons- particles in the nucleus with no charge
James Chadwick

 Elements: Simplest form of a pure substance

 Compounds: Two or more elements chemically combined
to form a new substance

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Sub-Atomic Particles Periodic Table

Part of Charge Location Mass (g) Electric
Atom Charge
(Coulombs)

Electron - negative outside 9.109 x 10-28 -1.602 x 10-19

nucleus

Proton + positive inside 1.673 x 10-24 +1.602 x 10-19

nucleus

Neutron no charge inside 1.675 x 10-24 0

nucleus

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Using the Periodic Table

35.4
 Atomic Mass Number
– Total AVERAGE mass of Protons +
Neutrons + Electrons
Cl
17
 Symbol
– “Shorthand” for the element – Note 2nd
letter is always lowercase

 Atomic Number
– Equal to # protons = # electrons
– Periodic Table is arranged by this
number

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Atoms, Molecules, Ions Electron Energy Levels

 Z - Atomic Number – the number of protons in the  Electrons are arranged in “Shells” around nucleus in
nucleus of each atom of an element predictable locations
 Fill “seats” closest to nucleus first (concert – best seats)
 A - Mass Number – the total number of neutrons and  “Seats” available
protons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element – Shell #1 2 electrons
– Shell #2 8 electrons
– Shell #3 8 electrons
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons – Shell #4 18 electrons
= atomic number + number of neutrons – Shell #5 32 electrons
– Shell #6 50 electrons

 Ex. Carbon has 6 total electrons so…

Two electrons on first energy level

Four electrons on second energy level

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Atomic Structure Isotopes

17
Total # of protons and electrons (in a neutral atom)
17 protons in nucleus
 Isotopes are atoms of the same
17 electrons orbiting nucleus element having the same atomic
Cl number but different atomic masses.
35.45 Element Name
Chlorine

 Ex: sulfur have 4 isotopes

(common form of sulfur has an atomic
Total Mass of Nucleus
35 - 17 = 18 neutrons
mass of 32 amu, another is 33 amu,
still another is 34 amu, & 37 amu)
(Round Atomic Mass)
Notice: electrons follow energy level rules Atomic mass x % abundance in nature
from previous slide.

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More Practice
 Determine the name, number of protons,
neutrons and electrons for each element

199 200
17

O Hg Hg
8 80 80

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More Practice

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 The number of electrons in a neutral atom of the Ions

element increases by one from left to right across a
period.  Change in electrons which gives an atom a
charge (+ or -)
 You can only add or subtract electrons!
(protons don’t change)
– Ex. Count the number of electrons below…

Carbon ion (-1 charge) Neutral Carbon Carbon ion (+1 charge)
7 electrons (-) 6 electrons (-) 5 electrons (-)
6 protons (+) 6 protons (+) 6 protons (+)

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Valence Electrons Electron Dot Diagrams

 An electron on the outermost energy shell of an  a diagram that represents the # of valence
atom electrons in an atom of an element.
 Important to understand because this is a key factor  The amount of electrons is displayed by dots
in how atoms will BOND with each other around the symbol of the element.
 Octet rule – stable atom will have 8 electrons in that  Ex.
outer shell
 Practice – Valence # of
– Chlorine?
– Neon?
– Nitrogen?
– Oxygen?

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Types of Chemical Bonds Predicting Bonds

 Ionic- Two elements bond by transferring electrons to create ions
that attract together (+ is attracted to - after an electron is transferred)
 Ionic Bond = metal to non-metal
 Covalent = non-metal to non-metal
 Metallic = metal to metal
 Covalent- Two elements bond by sharing electrons (strongest
bond type)

 Metallic- Two metals bond and form a “common electron cloud”.

This is a cluster of shared electrons (weakest bond type)
Do you understand why? HINT: the numbers at the top of the table indicate the # of valence electrons for each column

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Oxidation Numbers How to Use Oxidation Numbers

Oxidation Number indicates the number of electrons lost, gained or shared when
 Oxidation numbers are assigned to each element bonding with other atoms.

 They represent a predicted “charge” of an atom/ion Ex. Na wants to lose an electron. If an electron is lost, it
when it bonds with another element. becomes a +1 charge
 (tells us if the atom would prefer give or take electrons, and how many).
SO: oxidation number for Na = 1+
 They help us to predict what compounds will form
when two elements get together. Ex. Cl wants to gain an electron. If an electron is gained, it
becomes a -1 charge
 Oxidation numbers are labeled like this: SO: oxidation number for Cl = 1-
 Na 1+
 O 2-

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Oxidation Numbers  Label the oxidation numbers on your periodic table at the top of each
column as shown here:

1+ 2+ 3+ 4(+/-) 3- 2- 1- 0
 Each column going down the periodic table
has elements with the same oxidation
number.

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Rules for using oxidation

numbers to create compounds
1. Positive ions can only bond with negative ions and vice
versa
2. The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a
compound must be zero (the key is to stay balanced)

3. If the oxidation numbers are not equal to zero, then you

must add additional elements until they balance at zero.

4. When writing a formula the symbol of the Positive (+)

element is followed by the symbol of the negative (-)
element.

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Electronic Configuration Examples of Forming Compounds

of Elements Ex. Na (+1) + Cl (-1) = NaCl
Are these oxidation numbers already equal to zero?
 Electronic configuration of elements If so, you don’t need to add any extra elements to combine them into a compound, so the
answer is simply NaCl

- distribution of electrons in an element

Ex. H (+1) + O (-2) = H2O
 Aufbau Principle How many +1 would you need to balance the -2 to zero?
Since you need 2 atoms of the 1+ to balance the 2- to zero the resulting compound would be
- as soon as the energy level is filled with H2 O
In other words: to combine H with O, you MUST have 2 H to balance the oxidation numbers
electrons, any additional electron is thrown to to zero
2+ and 2- = ZERO
the next outer or higher energy level
Ex. Al (+3) + S (-2) = Al2S3
 Hund’s rule This one is tricky…we are not even close to balancing + and - to zero.
Because of this we must have more than one Al and more than one S in our final equation.
- electrons occupy separate orbitals in the By using 2 Aluminums instead of just1 we would have 6+
By using 3 sulfers instead of just 1 we would have 6-
same subshell with parallel spins before pairing Since these are now equal to zero, we combine 2 Aluminums and 3 Sulfers to make Al2S3

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Symbols used in Chemical

Naming Compounds
Equations
Symbol Purpose

+ Separates more than one reactant

or product
 Separates reactants from products.
Indicates direction of reaction
(s) Identifies a solid state

(aq) Identifies that something is

dissolved in water
(l) Identifies liquid state

(g) Identifies gaseous state

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Answer the following:

 1. Cu(NO3)2 6. Lead (II) Oxide
 2. KH2PO4 7. Sodium Hydroxide
 3. NH4ClO3 8. Calcium Phosphate
 4. Mn2O3 9. mercury (I) nitrite
 5. MnO2 10. calcium phosphate

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 1. Cu(NO3)2 6. Lead (II) Oxide

 2. KH2PO4 7. Sodium Hydroxide
 3. NH4ClO3 8. Calcium Phosphate
 4. Mn2O3 9. mercury (I) nitrite
 5. MnO2 10. calcium phosphate

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Answer the following:

 1. CO
 2. CO2
 3. SO2
 4. Sulfur trioxide
 5. Nitrogen dioxide
 6. Dinitrogen tetroxide

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Answer the following:

1. H2CO3
2. HClO3
3. HNO3
4. H3PO4
5. H2SO4

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End of Chapter II

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