Leaving Cert Chemistry Notes

Atomic
Structure HL

Name:
Periodic Table and Objectives

Atomic Structure
2. Atomic Structure -Outline the historical development of atomic theory (outline principles only,
mathematical treatment not required):
-Dalton: atomic theory;
-Crookes: vacuum tubes, cathode rays;
-Stoney: naming of the electron;
-Thomson: negative charge of the electron; e/m for electrons
(experimental details not required);
-Millikan: magnitude of charge of electrons as shown by oil drop
experiment (experimental details not required);
-Rutherford: discovery of the nucleus as shown by the particle scattering experiment;
discovery of protons in nuclei of various atoms;
-Bohr: model of the atom;
-Chadwick: discovery of the neutron.
-recall that matter is composed of particles, which may be atoms,
molecules or ions
-define an atom
-appreciate that atoms are minute particles
-state the law of conservation of mass
-describe, relative mass, relative charge and location of a proton, neutron, and electron in
an atom
All materials are made up of tiny building blocks called atoms. The process of diffusion is proof that all materials are
made up of these atoms.
History of the Atom and its Structure:
1. The Greeks:
All matter is made up of small, indivisible particles
2. John Dalton:
Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
1. All matter is made up of minute particles called atoms.
2. All atoms are indivisible, i.e. they cannot be broken down into any simpler particles.
3. William Crookes:
Carried out a number of experiments using vacuum tubes.
1. Maltese cross tube: The shadow of the Maltese Cross on the opposite side of the tube to the cathode
showed that radiation was coming from the cathode – Cathode Rays.
2. Paddle Wheel Tube: The cathode rays had enough energy to turn the paddle wheel.
4. J.J. Thomson:
Carried out an experiment with a cathode ray tube containing a pair of oppositely charged, parallel plates.
The cathode rays were attracted towards the positive plate, so
the particles must be negatively charged. He called them
electrons (a name suggested by George Stoney). He could
cancel out the attractive forces using a magnetic field.
Doing this enabled him to calculate e/m, the ratio of an electron’s charge to its mass.
Note: He could calculate only e/m, not e or m separately.
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Atomic Structure HL

5. Robert Millikan:
Carried out the famous oil drop experiment.
Oil was sprayed in a fine mist. X-rays were used to knock electrons
out of the air. The oil droplets picked up these electrons - becoming
negatively charged. The charge on two plates were changed until the
droplets floated in mid-air; the force of the charge was equal to the
force of gravity. This allowed him to calculate e, the charge of the
electron – and thus also calculate m, the mass of the electron.
6. J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model:
This model of the atom was proven to be wrong with Rutherford’s

Discovery of the nucleus.
7. Ernest Rutherford:
Discovered the nucleus by bombarding gold foil with alpha particles (+ve charged) and looking at what
happened to the alpha particles:
Result Conclusion
Most passed straight through Matter is mostly empty space
Some were deflected at large angles +ve alpha particles repelled when passing near the
small positive nucleus
Very small number reflected back along original path +ve alpha particles collided head on with the nucleus
Discovered protons by bombarding elements lighter than gold with alpha particles. These would break up,
releasing small +ve charged particles: protons.
8. James Chadwick:
Discovered the neutron by bombarding beryllium nuclei with alpha particles. Small, neutral particles were
released – neutrons.
Defn: Cathode rays are streams of electrons. They are negatively charged and have enough energy to move a
paddle wheel. They move in straight lines from the cathode to the anode and can be deflected my electric and
magnetic fields.
Properties of Subatomic Particles:

Relative Charge Relative Mass Location
Proton +1 1 Nucleus
Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
Electron -1 1/1830 (nearly 0) Outside Nucleus
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Atomic Structure HL
Model of the Atom after the Discovery of the Nucleus (Bohr Model):
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Arrangement of Electrons in The Atom HL
Name:

Atomic Structure
3. Arrangement of -define and explain energy levels in atoms
Electrons in the Atom -describe and explain the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom
using the Balmer series in the emission spectrum as an example
-describe and explain the absorption spectrum
-use flame tests to provide evidence that energy is absorbed or released in
-discrete units when electrons move from one energy level to another
-explain how flame tests provide evidence that energy is absorbed or
released in discrete units when electrons move from one energy
level to another
-relate energy levels in atoms to everyday applications such as sodium street lights and
fireworks
-discuss the uses of atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) as an
analytical technique
-illustrate how line spectra provide evidence for energy levels
-use a spectroscope or a spectrometer to view emission spectra of elements
-define and explain energy sub-levels
-state the Heisenberg uncertainty principle
-state the dual wave-particle nature of the electron (mathematical
treatment not required)
-define and explain atomic orbitals
-describe the shapes of s and p orbitals
Bohr’s Study of Spectra
• White light passed through a prism forms a continuous spectrum (no gaps).
• Bohr passed the light from a Hydrogen Gas Discharge Tube through a prism. The spectrum observed consisted of
some narrow, coloured lines. He called this an emission spectrum.
• Spectrometers allow measurement of the frequency of each band of light.
• Spectroscopes allow the spectrum to be viewed, but not measured.
• Every element has its own unique emission spectrum, which can be used to identify the element.
Flame Tests Metal Present Colour
Method: Lithium Crimson
1. Dip damp wooden splint into sample of salt. Potassium Lilac
2. Place sample into blue Bunsen flame. Barium Green
3. Record the colour of the flame. Strontium Strontium
Copper Blue-Green
Sodium (street lights) Yellow
Bohr’s Theory: Explaining the Evidence for the Existence of Energy Levels (Hydrogen only)
Defn: An energy level is defined as the fixed energy value that an electron in an atom may have.
Defn: The ground state of an atom is one in which the electrons occupy the lowest available energy levels.
Defn: The excited state of an atom is one in which the electrons occupy higher energy levels than those available
in the ground state.
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1. In the ground state the electron occupies

the lowest available energy level.
2. The electron can jump to a higher energy
level (excited state) if it absorbs energy.
3. The excited state is instable.
4. Electron falls back to a lower energy
level.
5. Energy given off as a photon. The
energy of the photon emitted
corresponds to the difference between the two energy levels (E2-E1=hf)
6. Each frequency of light emitted appears as a coloured line on the spectrum.
7. The separate lines obtained in the spectrum show that the electron can only have particular values of
energy.
8. The emission of visible light is due to electrons falling to the n=2 energy level. This is known as the
Balmer Series of emissions lines.
9.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

Principles:
1. White light is passed through a gaseous sample of an element.

2. Certain frequencies of light are missing from the light that emerges from
the other side of the sample, resulting in dark lines in the spectrum. This
spectrum is an atomic absorption spectrum.
3. These dark lines correspond exactly to the coloured lines in the emission
spectrum. The dark lines are due to the electrons in the element absorbing
certain frequencies of the white light to become excited.
Uses:
Instrument used: Atomic Absorption Spectrometer
Detection of the presence and concentration of certain elements (e.g. lead, chlorine) dissolved in water.
1. Atoms of an element absorb light of a particular wavelength of light.
2. The amount of light absorbed is proportional to its concentration (low absorption means low concentration, etc.)
Energy Sublevels
Every energy level (except n=1) consists of a number of sublevels.

Defn: A sublevel is a subdivision of a main energy level and consists of one or more orbitals of the same energy.
The sublevels for the first 4 energy levels are shown below:
n=1: s n=2: s, p n=3: s, p, d n=4: s, … etc. (this is far as the course needs)
Wave Nature of the Electron:
De Broglie said that electrons have a wave motion as well as being particles.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to measure the velocity and speed of an electron
simultaneously.
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Limitations of Bohr’s Theory:

1. Only accounted for the emission spectrum of Hydrogen (simple case – only 1 e-)
2. Doesn’t take the wave nature of the electron into account.
3. Did not take the existence of sublevels into account.
Atomic Orbitals:
Defn: An atomic orbital is a region in space where there is a high probability of finding an electron.
Sublevel Orbitals No. of Shape No. of e-s per Total no. of e-s
orbitals orbital in sublevel
s s
1 spherical 2 2
p px
py
3 Dumbbell 2 6
pz
d Not needed 5 Not needed 2 10
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The Periodic Table HL

Name:

Atomic Structure
4. The Periodic Table -describe the periodic table as a list of elements arranged so as to
demonstrate trends in their physical and chemical properties
-define the term element
-associate the first 36 elements with their elemental symbols
-distinguish between elements and compounds
-state the principle resemblances of elements within each main group, in particular
alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens and noble gases
-describe the reaction between water and lithium, sodium and potassium having seen
the reaction demonstrated
-describe by means of a chemical equation the reaction between water and lithium,
sodium and potassium having seen the reaction demonstrated
-outline the history of the idea of elements, including the contributions of the Greeks,
Boyle, Davy and Moseley
-outline the contributions of Mendeleev, Dobereiner, Newlands and Moseley to the
structure of the modern periodic table
-compare Mendeleev’s with the modern periodic table
-arrange elements in order of relative atomic mass and note differences with modern
periodic table
-define atomic number (Z) and mass number (A)
-define relative atomic mass (Ar) using 12C scale
-define isotope
-describe the composition of isotopes using hydrogen and carbon as an example
-calculate the relative atomic masses from abundance of isotopes of a given mass
number
-describe the organisation of particles in atoms of elements numbers 1-20
-classify the first twenty elements in the periodic table on the basis of the number of
outer electrons
-list the numbers of electrons in each main energy level in atoms of numbers 1-20
-build up the electronic structure of the first 36 elements
-derive the electronic configurations of ions of s- and p-block elements only
-describe the arrangement of electrons in individual orbitals of p-block atoms
Elements:
1. The Greeks: 4 elements – earth, air, fire and water.
2. Robert Boyle: Defn: An element is a substance that cannot be split into simpler substances by chemical means.
History of the Periodic Table:

1. Dobereiner: Put elements into groups of 3, called triads.
Defn:A triad is a group of three elements with similar chemical properties in which the atomic weight (relative
atomic mass) of the middle element is approximately equal to the average of the other two.
2. Newlands: Put elements in order of increasing weight, and found that properties repeated themselves every
eighth element.
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Defn: Newland’s Octaves are arrangements of elements in which the first and the eighth element, counting
from a particular element, have similar properties.
3. Mendeleev: Arranged the elements in order of increasing weight.
Defn: Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight, the
properties of the elements recur periodically, i.e. the properties displayed by the element are repeated at regular
intervals in other elements.
• He left gaps for undiscovered elements
• He switched some pairs of elements in his table so they would fit in the with the properties expected in
that group
• Transition metals did not have a separate block
4. Mosely: Arranged elements in order of increasing atomic number.
Defn: The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
Defn: Modern Periodic Law: When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, the properties
of the elements recur periodically, i.e. the properties displayed by the element are repeated at regular intervals in
other elements.
• No gaps
• Transition metals are in a separate block
Mass Numbers and Isotopes:

Defn: The mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of that element.
No. of neutrons in an atom = Mass Number (A) – Atomic Number (Z)

Defn: Isotopes are atoms of the same element (i.e. they have the same atomic
number) which have different mass numbers due to the different number of
neutrons in the nucleus.
Defn: Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average of the mass numbers of the
isotopes of an element, as they occur naturally, taking their abundances into
account and expressed on a scale relative to 1/12th the mass of 12C.
To calculate the relative atomic mass of an element:
Example
A sample of boron contains 18.7% 10B and 81.3% 11B. Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron.
Solution:
For 100 atoms,
18.7 of them have a mass of 10: 18.7 x 10 = 187
81.3 of them have a mass of 11: 81.3 x 11 = 894.3

Total mass of 100 atoms = 1081.3
Average mass of 1 atom = 1081.3 ÷ 100 = 10.813 ← This is our relative atomic mass.
Electron Configuration of Atoms:

Defn: Aufbau Principle: When building up the electron configuration of an atom in its ground state, the electrons
occupy the lowest available energy level.
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Defn: Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity states that when two or more orbitals of equal energy are available, the
electrons occupy them single before filling them in pairs.
Defn: The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no more than two electrons may occupy an orbital and they must have
opposite spins.
The sublevels, in order of increasing energy are: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d.
If the highest energy sublevel containing electrons is a p sublevel, split the sublevel into its px, py and pz orbitals
Examples:
1. Write the (s, p, etc.) electron configuration of Ar.
Argon: 18 e-
Solution : 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6
3 Energy levels occupied ( n=1, n=2, n=3: the BIG numbers)
5 Sublevels occupied ( 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p: the number of letters)
9 Orbitals occupied ( 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz, 3s, 3px, 3py, 3pz: the number of letters, including the splitting of p and d
sublevels)
2. Write the (s, p, etc.) electron configuration of O-

O- : 8+1 = 9 e-
Solution : 1s2, 2s2, 2px2, 2py2, 2pz1
Note: As the 2p sublevel was not filled, we need to split it into the px, py, and pz orbitals. These orbitals are filled singly
at first, then doubly.
2 Energy levels occupied
3 Sublevels occupied ( 1s, 2s, 2p: we count these “unsplit” – the 2px, 2py, 2pz orbitals make up the 2p sublevel )
5 Orbitals (We count these with fully split up orbitals – 3 orbitals in a p sublevel, 5 orbitals in a d sublevel)
3. Write the (s, p, etc.) electron configuration of Fe3+:
Fe3+: 26-3 = 23 e-
Solution: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d3

4 Energy levels occupied
7 Sublevels occupied
13 Orbitals occupied ( 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz, 3s, 3px, 3py, 3pz, 4s, and 3 singly filled d orbitals )
4. Write the (s, p, etc.) electron configuration of Cr:
Cr: 24 e- (this is an important number as it is an exception – so is 29 e-)

Solution: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1, 3d5 NOT 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d4
Note: 1 e- has moved from the 4s sublevel to the 3d sublevel. This is because filled and half-filled sublevels are extra
stable. By moving this 1 e- we now have a half filled 4s sublevel and a half-filled 3d sublevel. This moving of electrons
ONLY occurs for elements/ions with 24 or 29 electrons.
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Chemical Equations: Tests for Anions HL

Name:
Chemical Bonding Objectives

6. Chemical Equations: -balance simple chemical equations
Tests for Anions -test for anions in aqueous solutions: chloride, carbonate, nitrate, sulfate, phosphate,
sulfite, hydrogencarbonate
Chemical Equations:
Balancing Chemical Equations:
Defn: The Law of Conservation of Mass states that the total mass of the products of a chemical reaction is the same as
the total mass of the reactants.
This tells us that all of the atoms that go into a reaction must come back out at the end. Atoms don’t just appear and
dissappear. Another way to say this is:
Defn: The Law of Conservation of Matter states that in any chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed
but merely changes from one form to another.
As every atom going into a reaction must be accounted for in the products that are formed, we need our chemical
equations to be balanced, i.e. the number of atoms of each element on the left of the equation must equal the number of
atoms of each element on the right hand side.
Note: We can never change the formula for any compound in the equation, we can only change the coefficient (big
number on front).
Example:
Balance the chemical equation
Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + Fe
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To balance the equation, we draw a table, listing how many atoms of each element are on each side of the equation:
Left Hand Side Right Hand Side

1 Al atom 2 Al atoms
2 Fe atoms 1 Fe atom
3 O atoms 3 O atoms
We have 1 Al atom on the left and 2 Al atoms on the right. We make them equal by adding a coefficient of 2 before Al
on the left of the equation:
2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + Fe

Our table now looks like:

2 Al atoms 2 Al atoms
2 Fe atoms 1 Fe atom
3 O atoms 3 O atoms
We have 2 Fe atoms on the left and 1 Fe atom on the right. We make them equal by adding a coefficient of 2 before Fe
on the right of our equation:
2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe

Our table now looks like:

2 Al atoms 2 Al atoms
2 Fe atoms 2 Fe atoms
3 O atoms 3 O atoms
Both sides of our table are now equal, so our equation is balanced.
Our balanced equation is:
2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe
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Tests For Anions:
These tests are used to find the anion (negative ion) in a sample of an ionic compound. The table below summarises the
experiment and needs to be known by heart.
Anion Test Observation Reason

Chloride 1. Add AgNO3 solution to 1. White precipitate forms Ag+ + Cl- → AgCl↓
a solution of the sample.
2. Add ammonia (NH3) 2. Precipitate dissolves
Sulphate 1. Add BaCl2 solution to a 1. White precipitate forms Ba2+ + SO42- → BaSO4↓
solution of the sample. Ba2+ + SO32- → BaSO3↓
Or
Sulphite 2. To distinguish: Add 2. If precipitate remains
dilute HCl. ⇨ sulphate
If precipitate dissolves
⇨ sulphite.
Carbonate 1. Add dilute HCl to the 1. Fizzing/Effervescence. CO32- + 2H+ → CO2 + H2O
solid sample. HCO3- + H+ → CO2 + H2O
Or A gas is given off that Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3↓ + H2O
turns limewater milky.
Hydrogencarbonate 2. To distinguish: Add 2. White precipitate forms

MgSO4 to a fresh ⇨ carbonate Mg2+ + CO32- → MgCO3↓
solution of the sample. No precipitate forms
⇨ hydrogencarbonate Mg2+ + 2HCO3- → Mg(HCO3)2
Nitrate Brown Ring Test: A brown ring is formed at Brown ring is due to the nitrate ion
1. Add FeSO4 to a solution the junction of the two being present.
of the sample. liquids ⇨ nitrate anion is
2. Add concentrated present
sulphuric acid.
Phosphate 1. Add Ammonium Yellow precipitate is Yellow precipitate is due to the
Molybdate to a solution formed ⇨ phosphate anion phosphate ion being present.
of the sample. is present.
2. Add concentrated nitric
acid.
3. Warm the solution.
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Chemical Bonding: Chemical Formulas HL

Name:

5. Chemical Bonding: -understand that compounds can be represented by chemical formulas
Chemical Formulas -relate the stability of noble gasses to their electron configurations
-describe bonding and valency in terms of the attainment of a stable
electronic structure
-state the octet rule
-explain its limitations
-use the octet rule to predict the formulas of simple binary compounds of the first 36
elements (excluding d-block elements) and the hydroxides, carbonates, nitrates,
hydrogencarbonates, sulfites and sulfates of these elements (where such exist).
-recognise that Cu, Fe, Cr and Mn have variable valencies
-relate the uses of helium and argon to their chemical unreactivity

Ionic Bonding -define ion, positive ion, negative ion
-appreciate the minute size of ions
-explain ionic bonding in terms of electron transfer
-represent ionic bonds using dot and cross diagrams
-describe the structure of a sodium chloride crystal having reviewed models
-associate ionic substances with their characteristics
-outline two uses of ionic materials in everyday life

Covalent Bonding -define molecule
-appreciate the minute size of molecules
-explain covalent bonding in terms of the sharing of pairs of electrons (Single, double
and triple covalent bonds)
-represent covalent bonds in molecules using dot and cross diagrams
-distinguish between sigma and pi bonding
-distinguish between polar and non-polar covalent bonding
-test a liquid for polarity using a charged plastic rod
-give examples of polar and non-polar materials in everyday life (two examples in each
case)
-associate covalent substances with their characteristics
-test the solubility of ionic and covalent substances in different solvents

Electronegativity -define electronegativity
-recognise the trends in electronegativity values down a group
and across a period
-explain the general trends in electronegativity values
• down a group
• across a period.
-relate differences in electronegativity to polarity of bonds
-predict bond type using electronegativity differences

Shapes of Molecules and -describe the shapes of simple molecules
Intermolecular Forces -use appropriate modeling techniques to illustrate molecular shape
-explain the basis for electron pair repulsion theory use electron pair repulsion theory
to explain the shapes of molecules of type ABn for up to four pairs of electrons around
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the central atom refer to bond angles (Shapes of molecules with pi bonds not to be
considered)
-explain the relationship between symmetry and polarity in a molecule (dipole
moments not required)
-describe and distinguish between intramolecular bonding and intermolecular forces
(van der Waals’, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding)
-describe the effects of intermolecular forces on the boiling point of covalent
substances
-relate the differences in boiling points of H2 and O2 , C2H2 and HCHO and of H2O and
H2S to the effect of intermolecular forces
Defn: A compound is a substance that is made up of two or more different elements combined together chemically.
The Octet Rule: When bonding occurs, atoms tend to reach an electron arrangement with eight electron in the
outermost energy level.
Exceptions to the octet rule:

1. Transition Metals usually do not obey the octet rule.
2. Hydrogen, Lithium and Beryllium tend to achieve two electrons in the outermost energy level instead of eight.
Ionic Bonding:
Defn: An ion is a charged atom or group of atoms.

Elements in Group I of the Periodic Table form ions with a charge of +1 as they lose their 1 outermost electron.
Elements in Group II of the Periodic Table form ions with a charge of +2 as they lose their 2 outermost electrons.
Elements in Group III of the Periodic Table form ions with a charge of +3 as they lose their 3 outermost electrons.
These positive ions are called cations.
Elements in Group VI of the Periodic Table form ions with a charge of -2 as they gain 2 electrons.
Elements in Group VII of the Periodic Table form ions with a charge of -1 as they gain 1 electron.
These negative ions are called anions.

-
F F
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Defn: An ionic bond is the force of attraction between oppositely charged ions in a compound. Ionic bonds are always
formed by the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
To show the ionic bonding in a compound, use a dot-and-cross diagram:
Note: The charges in an ionic compound always cancel each other out to be neutral overall.
Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride:
Notes:
The three-dimensional arrangement of ions is called a crystal

lattice.
Each sodium ion is surrounded by 6 chloride ions.
Each chloride ion is surrounded by 6 sodium ions.
Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds:
Note: In the formula and the name of any ionic compound, the positive ion goes first.
Example: Write the formula for the compound Aluminium Oxide.
This compound, from its name, is made up of Aluminium, Al, and Oxygen, O.
Al is in Group III, so it forms a +3 ion. O is in Group VI so it forms a -2 ion.

The LCM of 3 and 2 is 6. We need to have a +6 charge and a -6 charge so that the compound is neutral overall.
So we need 2 Al3+ and we need 3 O2-.
Our formula is Al2O3.
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Complex Ions (Group Ions)
A complex ion is an ion made up of two or more different atoms.
There are a number of complex ions whose names, formulas and charges you need to know by heart:
Name Formula Charge

Hydroxide ion OH-
Nitrate ion NO3-
One Negative Charge
Hydrogencarbonate ion HCO3-
Permanganate ion MnO4-
Carbonate ion CO32-
Chromate ion CrO42-
Dichromate ion Cr2O72-
Two Negative Charges
Sulphate ion SO42-
Sulphite ion SO32-
Thiosulphate ion S2O32-
Phosphate ion PO43- 3 Negative Charges
Ammonium ion NH4+ 1 Positive Charge
Example: Write the chemical formula for the ionic compound Calcium Hydrogencarbonate.
This compound is made up of Calcium, Ca, and the complex ion, Hydrogencarbonate, HCO3-.
Calcium is in Group II, so it forms a +2 ion. Hydrogencarbonate is a -1 complex ion.
The LCM of 2 and 1 is 2. We need to have a +2 charge and a -2 charge to be neutral overall.
So, we need only one Ca2+ ion. We need two HCO3- ions, which we write like (HCO3)2.
Our formula is Ca(HCO3)2.
Ionic bonding with the Transition Metals:

Transition metals are the elements found in the d-block (except for Scandium and Zinc). They are special for a number
of reasons:
1. Transition metals are used as catalysts.
2. Each transition metal can make different ions with different charges. For instance, Mn (Manganese) can form
ions with a charge of either +2, +4 or +7. We show which charge the ion has by using Roman Numerals in
brackets after the name of the element. So an Mn7+ ion is called Manganese (VII).
3. Transition metals form coloured compounds. (One transition metal can form compounds of different colours
depending on its charge – e.g. Mn7+ is purple, but Mn2+ is completely colourless.)
Example: Write the chemical formula for the ionic compound Iron (II) Carbonate.
We have Iron with a +2 charge, as told by the “(II)”. So we have Fe2+. We also have Carbonate, CO32-, a -2 charged ion.
The LCM of 2 and 2 is 2, so we need a +2 and a -2 charge for the compound to be neutral.
So we need only one Fe2+ and only one CO32-.
Our formula is FeCO3
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Example: Name the compound Cr2(SO4)3.
For this example we need to work out the charge on the (SO4)3 to find the charge on the Cr (which is a transition metal,
so it needs a roman numeral in brackets in its name so that its charge is clearly known).
SO4 is the sulphate ion, which has a charge of -2.
We have three sulphate ions so the total negative charge is -6.
Therefore our Cr2 must have a +6 charge (for two Cr atoms). This means that each Cr ion has a charge of +3.
So the name of our compound is Chromium (III) Sulphate.
Covalent Bonding:
Covalent bonding involves electrons being shared between atoms, rather than electrons being fully transferred.
Defn: A molecule is a group of atoms joined together. It is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can
exist independently.
We can show covalent bonding using dot-and-cross diagrams:
Hydrogen, H2 Ammonia, NH3 Methane, CH4
Defn: The valency of an element is defined as the number of atoms of hydrogen which the element will combine with.
Example: Carbon belongs to Group 4 of the Periodic Table so it has 4 outer electrons. To achieve an outer shell of 8
electrons (Octet Rule) it would need to bond with 4 hydrogen atoms. Therefore Carbon’s valency is 4.
Sigma (σ) and Pi (π) Bonding:

Covalent Bonding can be expressed in terms of overlapping atomic orbitals. There are two ways this can happen:
1. Sigma (σ) Bonding:
Defn: A sigma bond is formed by the head-on overlap of atomic orbitals.
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2. Pi (π) Bonding:
Defn: A pi bond is formed by the sideways overlap of p orbitals.
Rule of Thumb: A single bond always consists of a sigma bond.
A double bond always consists of one sigma and one pi bond.
A triple bond always consists of one sigma bond and two pi bonds.
Look at the triple bond in Nitrogen gas, N2:
Different properties between ionic and covalent compounds:
Ionic Covalent
1. Contain a network of ions in the crystal Contain individual molecules
2. Ususally hard and brittle Usually soft
3. High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points
4. Ususally solid at room temperature Usually liquids, gases, or soft solids at room temperature
5. Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water Do not conduct electricity
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Shapes of Covalent Molecules:
The theory used to predict the shapes of covalent molecules is called VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory).
How to use this theory:
1. Draw a dot-and-cross diagram of the molecule in question.

2. Count how many Bond Pairs of electrons are around the central atom of the molecule.
3. Count how many Lone Pairs of electrons are around the central atom of the molecule.
4. Use the number of Bond Pairs and Lone Pairs from parts 2. and 3. to find the shape using the table below:
Shape No. of Bond Pairs No. of Lone Pairs Diagram Bond Angles
Linear 2 0 180°
V-Shaped 2 2 104.5°
Triangular Planar 3 0 120°
Pyramidal 3 1 107°
Tetrahedral 4 0 109.5°
Note: This table needs to be known by heart – you will not have this supplied during the exam.
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Electronegativity:
Defn: Electronegativity is the relative attraction that an atom in a molecule has for the shared pair of electrons in a
covalent bond.
In covalent bonds, the electrons are not always equally shred. One atom in the molecule has a greater “pull” on the
electrons in the bond – this atom with the greater “pull” is the more electronegative atom. This leads to having two main
types of bond in a covalent molecule:
(a) Non-polar covalent: The atoms in the molecule all share electrons equally.
(b) Polar covalent: The atoms in the molecule do not share the electrons equally. This causes one end of the bond to
be slightly positive (δ+) and the other ened to be slightly negative (δ-).
Even though many molecules have polar bonds, it does not mean that the molecule itself is polar.
To find out if a molecule is polar we need to:
1. Find the centre of positive charge.

2. Find the centre of negative charge.
3. If the centres from 1. and 2. are in exactly the same place, the molecule is non-polar (even though the bonds are
polar). If the centres from 1. and 2. are not in exactly the same place, the molecule is polar overall.
Centre of negative and

positive charge
Centre of negative charge
Centre of positive charge
Non-Polar Polar
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We can prove that water is polar, by placing a charged plastic rod near a thin stream of water (from a burette). We see
that whether the plastic rod has a positive or negative charge, the water is always attracted to (and never repelled from)
the rod.
Explanation: If the rod is positively charged, the water molecules will spin so that the
negative end of the water molecule is facing the rod, causing an attraction. Likewise,
if the rod is negatively charged, the water molecules will spin so that the positive end
of the molecule will face the rod, causing attraction
Dissolving Ionic Compounds in Water:
We will look at the example of dissolving NaCl, Sodium Chloride (Table Salt) in water:
Ionic compounds are made up of
positively and negatively
charged ions.
When these ions are put in
water, the water molecules
arrange themselves around the
ions so that the crystal is “pulled
apart”, or dissolved.
The negative (oxygen) end of
the water will surround the
positive ions (Na+) in the
crystal.
The postive (hydrogen) end of

the water will surround the
negative ions (Cl-) in the crystal.
Using Electronegativity Values to Predict the Type of Bonding in a Molecule:

For this you need the Electronegativity Tables (Log Tables, Page 81). These table give us a number for each element,
letting us know exactly how electronegative that element is.
To see what type of bonding is occuring in a molecule: Value Bonding

1. Find the electonegativity values (from the Log Tables) of the elements in 0 - 0.4 Non-Polar Covalent
the molecule. 0.4 - 1.7 Polar Covalent
2. Subtract the two values (if you get a negative answer, ignore the minus). Over 1.7 Ionic
3. Compare your answer with the table on the right to get the type of bonding
in the molecule.
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Example: What type of bonding occurs in a molecule of HCl (Hydrogen Chloride)?
From the tables, the Electronegativity Value for H is 2.20.
From the tables, the Electronegativity Value for Cl is 3.16.
3.16 – 2.2 = 0.96
Since 0.96 is between 0.4 and 1.7, the type of bonding in HCl is Polar Covalent.
Intramolecular and Intermolecular Bonding:
Intramolecular Bonding:
Defn: Intramolecular Bonding is bonding that takes place within a molecule i.e. it holds the atoms in a molecule
together. Covalent bonding is an example of intramolecular bonding.
Intermolecular Forces:
Defn: Intermolecular Forces are the forces of attraction that exist between molecules. Van der Waals forces, dipole-
dipole forces and hydrogen bonding are examples of intermolecuar forces.
In detail, the three types of intermolecular forces are (from weakest to strongest):
1. Van der Waals Forces:
Van der Waals forces occur between non-polar molecules.
We will look at Hydrogen, H2, a non-polar molecule. The electrons around the hydrogen atoms are constantly
moving around. This means that at one moment, the electrons may both be on one side of the molecule. This
gives the molecule a slight negative charge (δ-) on the side with the electrons and leaves a slight positive charge
(δ+) on the side with no electrons. This dipole (difference in charge) is only temporary as the electrons are
constantly moving.
This formation of a temporary dipole can induce a similar dipole in a nearby molecule. There is now an
attraction between the two molecules. This attraction is called Van der Waals force.
Defn: Van der Waals forces are weak attractive forces between molecules resulting from the formation of
temporary dipoles. They are the only forces of attraction between non-polar molecules.
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Notes on Van der Waals Forces:
§ Van der Waals forces get stronger for bigger molecules. This is because bigger molecules have more
electrons and therefore have a bigger chance of making a temporary dipole (having more electrons on
one side of the molecule than the other).
§ The stronger the Van der Waals forces on a molecule, the higher its boiling point and melting point.
E.g. H2 has a boiling point of -253°C, while O2 has a boiling point of -183°C. Even though both
molecules are non-polar and both have Van der Waals forces between molecules, the fact that oxygen
atoms are bigger than hydrogen atoms means that the Van der Waals forces for Oxygen are much
stronger. This causes the molecules to be pulled together more strongly and have a higher boiling point.
2. Dipole-Dipole Forces:
Dipole-Dipole forces are very similar to Van der Waals forces, except that they occur between polar covalent molecules
i.e. molecules with a permanent dipole.
Defn: Dipole-Dipole Forces are forces of attraction between the negative pole of one polar molecule and the positive
pole of another polar molecule.
In the diagram above we have two molecules of HCl, a polar compound. Cl is more electronegative than H so there is a
slight negative charge (δ-) over the Cl, leaving a slight positive charge (δ+) over the H. The δ- of the Cl attracts the δ+
on the H of a nearby HCl molecule, causing an attraction. This attraction is the dipole-dipole force and is represented by
the dotted line.
Note on Dipole-Dipole Forces:

§ These forces are much stonger than Van der Waals forces. This causes polar molecules to have much
higher boiling and melting points than similar non-polar molecules. E.g. the boiling point of HCl
(-85°C) is much higher than that of H2 (-253°C) as the stronger dipole-dipole forces of HCl need more
heat energy to be broken (boil) compared to the extremely weak Van der Waals forces of H2.
3. Hydrogen Bonding:
Defn: Hydrogen Bonds are particular types of dipole-dipole attractions between molecules in which Hydrogen atoms
are bonded to Nitrogen, Oxygen or Fluorine. The Hydrogen atom carries a partial positive charge and is attracted to the
electronegative atom (N, O or F) in another molecule.
When H is bonded to either N, O or F, the partial charges are particularly strong as there is a big electronegativity
difference between the atoms. This means that Hydrogen Bonding is the strongest form of intermolecular force.
In the diagram, we can see that there are intermolecular forces
between the two water molecules. Because each water molecule
has H bonded to O, we have hydrogen bonding, which is the
strongest type of intermolecular force. That is why water has a
particularly high boiling point (100°C), as these strong forces need
to be broken by a lot of heat in order for the liquid water to boil.
The dotted line represents the hydrogen bonding between the water
molecules.
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Important Note on Intermolecular Bonding:
Even though we talk of stonger and weaker forces (hydrogen bonding vs dipole-dipole, for example), in reality these
forces are very weak – MUCH weaker than the covalent bonds holding the atoms in each molecule together.
Approach to Exam Questions:
You will often be given a list of compounds along with a list of boiling points. You are asked to match up each
compound with the correct boiling point. The way to approach this is by identifying the types of intermolecular forces
between the molecules. So identify which molecule has Van der Waals forces, which has Dipole-Dipole forces and
which has Hydrogen Bonding. As you now have them ordered from weakest to strongest intermolecular forces, you can
assign the boiling points (lowest to highest).
Dissolving Compounds in Water:
A good rule to remember when trying to make a solution up is “LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE”. This means that a polar
solute will only dissolve in a polar solvent, and a non-polar solute will only dissolve in a non-polar solvent.
As water is a highly polar molecule, only polar and ionic substances can dissolve in it.
The more polar the substance, the more easily it will dissolve in water.
If a compound has Hydrogen Bonding, it will dissolve even more easily in water.
Non-polar compounds will NOT dissolve in water. Non-polar solutes are usually dissolved in cyclohexane, a non-polar
solvent.
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Trends in The Periodic Table HL

Name:

7. Trends in The Periodic -define and explain atomic radius
Table -explain the general trends in values of atomic radii (covalent radii only)
• down a group
• across a period (main group elements only)
-define and explain first ionisation energy
-explain the general trends in first ionisation energy values:
• down a group
• across a period (main group elements) and
-explain the exceptions to the general trends across a period
-define and explain second and successive ionisation energies
-describe how second and successive ionisation energies provide evidence for energy
levels
-recognise the relationship and trends in successive ionisation energies of an
individual element
-explain how chemical properties of elements depend on their electronic structure
-explain how atomic radius, screening effect and nuclear charge account for general
trends in properties of elements in groups I and VII
-recognise the trends in electronegativity values down a group and across a period
-explain the general trends in electronegativity values
• down a group
• across a period

Trends in Atomic Radii:

Defn: The atomic radius of an atom is defined as half the distance
between the nuclei of two atoms of the same element that are joined
by a single covalent bond.
The values of the atomic radius increases going down groups in the
periodic table.
Reasons:
1. Each time we move down the periodic table we add an extra
energy level further away from the nucleus, making it bigger.
2. With these extra energy levels further from the nucleus as we move down the periodic table, the screening effect
of the inner electrons reduces (cancels out) the pull the positive
nuclear charge has on the outer electrons.
The values of the atomic radius decreases going across periods in the
periodic table.
Reasons:
1. The effective nuclear charge of the nucleus increases going across a period (more positive charge as we have
more protons in the nucleus), which pulls the outer electrons closer to the nucleus.
2. No increase in screening effect as all elements in the same period have the same outer energy level.
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Trends in Ionisation Energy:
Defn: The First Ionisation Energy of an atom is the minimum energy required to completely remove the most loosely
bound electron from a neutral gaseous atom in its ground state.
This means the energy that’s needed to pull the loosest (furthest from the nucleus) electron off an atom.
The values of the first ionisation energy decrease going down groups in the periodic table.
Reasons:
1. Increasing atomic radius as we go down a group means that the outermost electron gets further and further from
the nucleus, making it easier to remove.
2. The increasing screening effect of the inner electrons as we go down a group also makes the most loosely bound
electron easier to remove.
The values of the first ionisation energy increase going across periods in the periodic table.
Reasons:
1. Increasing effective nuclear charge as we go across a period means that the most loosely bound electron gets
pulled more strongly by the nucleus as we go across the group. More energy is then needed to remove this
electron.
2. Decreasing atomic radius means that the most loosely bound electron gets closer to the nucleus of the atom as
we go across the period. This means the nucleus has a stonger pull on the electron, so it becomes more difficult
to remove the electron.
Exceptions to the Trend Across a Period:
Look at the graph of ionisation

energies for the first 20 elements in
the periodic table.
Look at the trend from Li to Ne, the
second period of the periodic table.
Generally the ionisation energy
increases, however there are
exceptions.
From Be to B there is a dip.
To explain this, look at the electron

configuration of Be and B:
Be: 1s22s2 B: 1s22s22p1

The outermost sublevel of Be (2s) is full, whereas the outermost sublevel of B (2p) has only 1 electron. Atoms whose
outermost sublevel is half full or completely full have extra stability. As Be has a completely full outer sublevel, its
ionistion energy is particularly high.
Likewise for the dip from N to O, look at their electron configurations:

N: 1s22s22p3 O: 1s22s22p4
N has a half filled outer sublevel (2p), O does not have a half filled or completely filled outer sublevel, meaning that N
has extra stability. This explains why N has a particularly high ionisation energy.
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Ionisation Energies are Used as Evdence for the Existence of Energy Levels:
Along with the Defn given for the First Ionsation Energy, there is another one needed:
Defn: Second Ionsation Energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an ion with one positive charge in
the gaseous state.
This means the energy needed to remove the second loosest electron, after the loosest has already been removed. This
definition can keep going to define the third, fourth, etc., ionisation energies.
Look at the graph below which shows a plot of the log of ionisation energy vs. number of electrons removed from an
atom of Potassium: (the log is used because the energy values get very, very big, very, very quickly! Don’t worry about
this)
2
Keep in mind the the electron configuration of Potassium, K, is: 1s 2s22p63s23p64s1
The first The second electron is much more Large increase Large increase
ionisation is difficult to remove then the first (large because we are because we are
quite low as the spike in energy required). This suggests removing an electron removing an electron
first electron that an electron is being removed from from the filled n=2 from the filled n=1
removed comes a filled energy level (closer to the energy level (closer to energy level (closer to
from the n=4 nucleus). This is true as electrons are the nucleus). There the nucleus). There
energy level, now being removed from the n=3 are 8 electrons in the are 2 electrons in the
which is furthest energy level. Notice there are eight n=2 energy level, n=1 energy level,
away from the electron removals with similar energy. explaining why they explaining why they
nucleus. This is because there are 8 electrons in have similar ionation have similar ionation
the n=3 energy level. energies. energies.
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Trends In Electronegativity:
The values of electronegativity decrease going down groups in the periodic table.
Reasons:
1. Increasing atomic radius. This means that as you go down a group, the atom gets bigger, meaning that the atom
has a weaker pull on electrons in a bond as they are further away.
2. The Screening Effect of the inner electrons increases going down a group. This reduces the pull that the nucleus
has on outer electrons involved in bonding.
The values of electronegativity increase going across periods in the periodic table.
Reasons:
1. Increasing effective nuclear charge. This increases the pull of the nucleus on the outer electrons involved in
bonding.
2. Decreasing atomic radius. As you go across a period, atomic radius gets smaller, meaning that the nucleus is
closer to the outer electrons involved in bonding. This results in the nucleus having a stronger pull (attraction)
on the outer bonding electrons.
Trends Within Groups:
The names of certain groups in the priodic table need to be known. They are shown below:
I No. of electrons in outer energy level VIII
1 (Group)
Enery Level No.
II III IV V VI VII
2
(Period)
Non-
Alkaline Earth Metals
Noble Gases
3 Metals
Halogens
Alkali Metals
5
Metals
Transition Metals
6
7
Trends in the Alkali Metals (Group I):
All Alkali Metals are very reactive because the have only 1 electron in their outer energy level, which is easy to remove
as can be seen by their Ionisation Energies.
Trend:The chemical reactivity of the Alkali Metals increases going down the group.
Reasons:
1. As you go down the group, you add an extra energy level further from the nucleus with every step down. This
increases the screening effect on the inner electrons, making the outer electron easier to remove.
2. By adding an extra energy level with each step down, we also increase the atomic radius, reducing the pull that
the nuclear charge has on the outer electron, making it easier to remove.
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Important Reactions with Alkali Metals:
1. Reaction with Oxygen (O2):
All Alkali Metals react with oxygen to form oxides:
2K + ½O → K O
2 2
Potassium + Oxygen → Potassium Oxide
Any other Alkali Metal can replace the Potassium in this reaction.
Notes:
• This reaction is the reason why Alkali Metals are stored under oil – so they wont react with oxygen in the air.
• This reaction causes Alkali Metals to lose their shiny colour when exposed to air – the oxides are dull.

2. Reaction with Water (H2O):
All Alkali Metals react with water vigourously to form hydroxides and Hydrogen gas (H2):

Na + H2O → NaOH + ½H2
Sodium + Water → Sodium Hydoxide + Hydrogen
Any other Alkali Metal can replace the Sodium in this reaction.
Notes:
• This reaction demonstrates the increasing reactivity of the Alkali Metals going down a group. Potassium reacts
much more vigourously with water than Lithium does.
Trends in the Halogens (Group VII):
All Halogens are very reactive because they only need 1 extra electron to fill their outer energy level.
Trend: The reactivity of the Halogens increases going up the group.
Reason:
1. The Halogens are the most electronegative of all elements. The values of their electronegativities increase
going up the group, meaning that the higher up the group we go, the greater the pull they have on electrons,
making it easier for them to react and fill their outer energy level.
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Acids and Bases HL
Name:
Volumetric Analysis Objectives

2. Acids and Bases -relate the properties of acids and bases to their household applications
-recall that neutralisation is the formation of a salt from an acid and a base
-relate their knowledge of neutralisation to everyday examples e.g. use of lime in
agriculture , use of stomach powders
-state the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry theories of acids and bases
-define what is meant by a conjugate acid/base pair
-apply the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry theories of acids and bases for aqueous
solutions only
ARRHENIUS THEORY
Defn: An Arrhenius acid is a substance that dissociates in water to produce H+ ions.
e.g. HCl  H+ + Cl- (monobasic as one H+ produced)
H2SO4  2H+ + SO42- (dibasic as two H+ produced)
H3PO4  3H+ + PO43- (tribasic as three H+ produced)
Strong Arrhenius acids dissociate fully in water. e.g. HCl
Weak Arrhenius acids dissociate partially in water. e.g. Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
Note: H+ ions (which are just protons) cannot exist on their own in water. They bond with a water
molecule to form a hydronium ion, H3O+, as seen in the picture to the right.
Defn: An Arrhenius base is a substance that dissociates in water to produce OH- ions.
e.g. NaOH  Na+ + OH-
Mg(OH)2  Mg2+ + 2OH-
Ca(OH)2  Ca2+ + 2OH-
Strong Arrhenius bases dissociate fully in water. e.g. NaOH
Weak Arrhenius bases dissociate partially in water. e.g. Na2CO3
Note: Arrhenius’s theory of acids and bases is limited to solutions dissolved in water. In reality, not all acid-base
reactions need water, or even involve OH- ions. Today, we have a more modern theory for how acids and bases work.
BRØNSTED-LOWRY THEORY
Defn: A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton (H+) donor
e.g. HCl + NH3  NH4+ + Cl-
HCl donated a proton to the NH3 and became Cl-. HCl is a Brønsted-Lowry acid
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Acids and Bases HL
Strong Brønsted-Lowry acids are good proton donors. e.g. HCl, H2SO4, HNO3
Weak Brønsted-Lowry acids are poor proton donors. e.g. CH3COOH
Defn: A Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton (H+) acceptor

e.g. HCl + NH3  NH4+ + Cl-
NH3 accepted a proton from the HCl and became NH4+. NH3 is a Brønsted-Lowry base
Strong Brønsted-Lowry bases are good proton acceptors. e.g. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Weak Brønsted-Lowry bases are poor proton acceptors. e.g. NH3
Some substances can act as both an acid and a base in Brønsted-Lowry theory, depending on what they react with.
e.g. HCl + H2O  H3O+ + Cl- NH3 + H2O  NH4+ + OH-
H2O accepts proton  base H2O donated proton  acid

Substances which can act like this are called amphoteric.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARRHENIUS AND BRØNSTED-LOWRY THEORY
ARRHENIUS THEORY BRØNSTED-LOWRY THEORY

Limited to reactions in water Not limited to reactions in water
Limited to bases that produce OH- ions Not limited to bases that produce OH- ions
Does not take the existence of hydronium ions into account Takes the existence of hydronium ions into account
Cannot explain substances that act as both an acid and a Can explain substances that act as both an acid and a base
base
CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS

Defn: An acid changes into its conjugate base when it donates a proton.
e.g. CH3COOH  CH3COO- + H+ Every acid has a conjugate base.
acid conj. base Every base has a conjugate acid
n
Def : A base changes into its conjugate acid when it accepts a proton. We call these pairs conjugate
e.g. CH3COO + H  CH3COOH
- + acid-base pairs.
base conj. acid

Defn: A conjugate acid-base pair is any pair of substances that differ by a proton
e.g. CH3COOH + H2O  CH3COO- + H3O+
acid base base acid
Conjugate
Conjugate
acid-base Page 2 of 3
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G. Galvin
pair
pair
Acids and Bases HL
NEUTRALISATION
A salt is the substance formed when the H+ from an acid is replaced with a metal or ammonium (NH4+) ion.
e.g. when the H+ in HCl is replaced with sodium, we form the salt NaCl, sodium chloride.
when the H+ in HCl is replaced with ammonium, we form the salt NH4Cl, ammonium chloride.
Defn: Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water.
Types of neutralisation reactions:

1. Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen
e.g. 2HCl + Zn  ZnCl2 + H2
2. Acid + Base  Salt + Water
e.g. HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
3. Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
e.g. 2HCl + Na2CO3  2NaCl + H2O + CO2
Examples of neutralisation in everyday life:
1. Medicine:
Excess HCl in the stomach causes heartburn.
Gaviscon contains sodium hydrogencarbonate (a base) to neutralise the acid.
HCl + NaHCO3  NaCl + H2O + CO2
2. Agriculture:
If soil is too acidic, lime (CaO, calcium oxide) is added to neutralise the acidity.
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
Lime and water make calcium hydroxide, a base. This base reacts with the acid in the soil.
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2  CaSO4 + 2H2O
3. Environmental Protection:
Some areas receive high amounts of acid rain, making lakes very acidic. Limestone is added to to these
lakes to neutralise the acid.
H2SO4 + CaCO3  CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
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Properties of Gases HL
Name:
Stoichiometry, Objectives
Formulas and Equations
10. Properties of Gases -State and explain Boyle’s law
-describe the significance of Boyle’ air pump
-state and explain Charles’s law
-state and explain Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes
-state and explain Avogadro’s law
-carry out simple calculations using the
combined gas law P1 V1 = P2V2 = constant
T1 T2
-define ideal gases
-list the assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases
-explain why gases deviate from ideal gas behavior
-carry out simple calculations involving PV = nRT ( units: Pa m3,K)
Defn: A gas is a substance that has no well-defined boundaries and diffuses rapidly to fill any container in which it is
placed.
Temperature:
We use the Kelvin scale of temperature often for calculations.
 To convert oC to K, add 273.

 0 oC = 273 K = standard temperature
Pressure:
Units used are Pascals (Pa).
 1 kPa = 1,000 Pa
 1 hPa = 100 Pa
 1 x 105 Pa = 100 kPa = normal atmospheric pressure = standard pressure
Volume:
Units used are m3
 1 L = 1 dm3 = 1,000 cm3

 1 m3 = 1,000 L = 1 x 106 cm3 = 1,000,000 cm3
Standard Temperature and Pressure (s.t.p.)
The conditions of s.t.p. are:
1. 100,000 Pa of pressure
2. 273 K in temperature
Gas Laws:
1. Boyle’s Law:
At constant temperature, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
2. Charles’ Law:
At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature.
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3. The Combined Gas Law:

P1 = Initial Pressure P2 = Final Pressure
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 V1 = Initial Volume V2 = Final Volume
= T1 = Initial Temperature (K) T2 = Final Temperature (K)
𝑇1 𝑇2
This equation is used when the initial conditions of Pressure, Volume and Temperature of a gas are given. Also given
are two final conditions. You are asked to find the missing 3rd final condition (either a P, V or T)
4. Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes:

In a reaction between gases at the same temperature and pressure, the volumes of the reacting gases, and
gaseous products, are in simple whole number ratios.
5. Avogadro’s Law:
Equal volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules.
Notes: 1 mole of any gas at s.t.p. occupies a volume of 22.4 L.

1 mole of any gas at room temperature and pressure occupies a volume of 24 L.
The Kinetic Theory of Gases

Defn: An ideal gas is one that obeys all of the assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases under all conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases (Properties of an Ideal Gas):
1. Gases are made up of particles which are always randomly moving, colliding with other particles and with the
walls of the container.
2. There are no attractive or repulsive forces between the gas molecules.
3. The volumes of the gas molecules are negligible compared to the distance between the molecules.
4. Collisions between the molecules are perfectly elastic.
5. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas.
Limitations to the Kinetic Theory of Gases (Properties of a Real Gas):
1. Attractive forces do exist between gas molecules due to Van-der-Waals forces, dipole-dipole forces and
hydrogen bonding.
2. The volume of the gas molecules is not negligible compared to the distances between them.
Ideal Gas Equation:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
P = Pressure (Pa) →Pa must be used
V = Volume (m3 = cm3 ÷ 1,000,000 = L ÷ 1,000) →m3 must be used
n = number of Moles of gas (mol)
R = 8.3 (J K-1 mol-1) Universal Gas Constant
T = Temperature (K) →K must be used
We use this equation when we are asked to find the volume, Pressure, Temperature, number of moles, or relative
molecular mass of a gas (or volatile liquid) and we are given only one set of conditions.
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G. Galvin
Experiment: To measure the relative molecular mass of a volatile liquid.

1. Find the mass of a clean, dry conical flask, some aluminium foil and a rubber band.
2. Place some of the volatile liquid into the conical flask.
3. Seal liquid in flask using the foil as a cap, securing with the aluminium foil.
4. Make a small pinhole in the top of the foil. This allows the excess vapour to exit the flask, and keeps the
contents at the same pressure as the room.
5. Submerge the flask to the neck in boiling water until the liquid is fully vapourised.
6. Remove flask from boiling water and allow to cool. Vapour condenses back into a liquid. Dry the outside of the
flask.
7. Find the mass of the conical flask, foil cap, rubber band and condensed vapour. Subtract the mass found in step
1 from this mass to get the mass of the condensed vapour.
Calculations:
1. Use PV=nRT to find the number of moles of vapour which was present in the flask.
o P = Pressure in the room found using a barometer.
o V = Volume (in m3) of the conical flask. Find this by filling conical flask to the brim with water and
emptying into a graduated cylinder.
o n=?
o R = 8.3
o T = Temperature of the boiling water (use a thermometer and convert to K)
2. Find the Relative Molecular Mass of the volatile liquid using the formula:
Mass of Condensed Liquid

Mr = Mass of the condensed liquid comes from
n step 7 of the procedure
n is the number of moles of vapour in the

flask. This number is your answer to the
equation above in step 1 of the
calculations.
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G. Galvin
Oxidation and Reduction HL
Name:
Atomic Structure Objectives

5. Oxidation and -define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer
Reduction -use simple examples , e.g. Na with Cl2, Mg with O2, Zn with Cu2+ to describe oxidation
and reduction in terms of electron transfer
-apply knowledge of oxidation and reduction to explain the rusting of iron
-define oxidising agent and reducing agent
-carry out an experiment to show that halogens act as oxidising agents(reactions with
bromides, iodides, Fe2+ and sulfites; half equations only required)
-carry out an experiment to demonstrate the displacement reactions of metals (Zn with
Cu2+, Mg with Cu2+)
Chemical Bonding
6. Oxidation Numbers -define oxidation number, oxidation state
-define oxidation and reduction in terms of change of oxidation numbers
-state the rules for oxidation numbers (exclude peroxides, except for hydrogen
peroxide)
-calculate oxidation numbers of transition metals in their compounds and of other
elements
-use oxidation numbers in nomenclature of transition metal compounds
-give an example of an oxidising and a reducing bleach
Oxidation and reduction can be described in four ways:

In terms of:
1. Addition/removal of oxygen.
2. Addition/removal of hydrogen.
3. Electron transfer.
4. Change in oxidation number.
1. Addition/Removal of Oxygen:
Defn: Oxidation is the addition of oxygen.
E.g. C + O2  CO2 The carbon gains oxygen, therefore the carbon is oxidised.
Defn: Reduction is the removal of oxygen.
E.g. CuO + H2  Cu + H2O The copper loses oxygen, therefore the copper is reduced.
2. Addition/Removal of Hydrogen:
Defn: Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen.
E.g. H2S + Cl2  S + 2HCl The sulphur loses hydrogen, therefore the S is oxidised.
Defn: Reduction is the addition of hydrogen.
E.g. CO + 2H2  CH3OH The carbon monoxide gains hydrogen, therefore the CO is reduced.
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G. Galvin
3. Electron Transfer:
Defn: Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
E.g. Zn + Cu2+  Zn2+ + Cu The zinc loses 2e-, therefore the zinc is oxidised.
Defn: Reduction is the gain of electrons.
E.g. Zn + Cu2+  Zn2+ + Cu The copper gains 2e-, therefore the copper is reduced.
Remember, for electron transfer: Oxidation Is Loss Reduction Is Gain.
4. Change in Oxidation Number: (Finding oxidation numbers mentioned later in these notes)
Defn: Oxidation is an increase in oxidation number.
E.g. H2 + ½O2  H2O The O.N. of H increased from 0 to +1, therefore H is oxidised.
2(0) 2(0) 2(+1) (-2)
Defn: Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number.
E.g. H2 + ½O2  H2O The O.N. of O decreased from 0 to -2, therefore O is reduced.
2(0) 2(0) 2(+1) (-2)
Oxidising/Reducing Agents:
Defn: An Oxidising Agent is a substance that brings about oxidation in other substances by being reduced.
Defn: A Reducing Agent is a substance that brings about reduction in other substances by being oxidised.
+2e-  reduced  oxidising agent
E.g. Zn + Cu2+  Zn2+ + Cu
Assigning Oxidation Numbers:
Defn: Oxidation Number is the apparent charge an atom has when electrons are distributed according to certain
rules.
Rules:
1. The oxidation number of any element that is not bonded to another different element is 0.
E.g. O.N. of H in H2 is 0. O.N. of Na is 0. O.N. of Cl in Cl2 is 0.
2. The oxidation number of an ion of an element is the same as its charge.

E.g. O.N. of H in H+ is +1. O.N. of Ca in Ca2+ is +2. O.N. of Cl in Na+Cl- is -1.
3. The total of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound must add to give 0.
E.g. For H2O, each H is +1 and O is -2. This gives 2(+1)+(-2)=0.
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G. Galvin
4. Oxygen has an oxidation number of -2.

Exceptions:
(a) Peroxides like H2O2, as O.N of H = +1, each O must have an O.N. of -1 to give a total sum of 0.
(b) In OF2, as O.N. of F = -1, O must have an O.N. of +2.
5. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1.

Exception:
(a) In metal hydrides like NaH, CaH2 (H after a metal). Here H has an O.N. of -1.
6. Halogens (Group VII elements) have an oxidation number of -1.

Exception:
(a) When bonded to a more electronegative element (O or F), halogens can have other oxidation numbers
which are calculated using rule 3.
7. The total of the oxidation numbers in a complex ion must add to give the charge on the ion.
E.g. For NO3-, each O has an O.N. of -2, giving 3(-2)=-6. The total must give -1 as this is the charge on the
ion. Therefore N must have an O.N. of +5.
Balancing Redox Equations:
Using oxidation numbers, balance the following equation:
Mn O4- + Fe2+ + H+  Mn2+ + Fe3+ + H2 O
1. Assign oxidation numbers:
Mn O4- + Fe2+ + H+  Mn2+ + Fe3+ + H2 O

(+7) 4(-2) (+2) (+1) (+2) (+3) 2(+1) (-2)
2. Show the number of electrons gained/lost:

-1e-
Mn O4- + Fe2+ + H+  Mn2+ + Fe3+ + H2 O

(+7) 4(-2) (+2) (+1) (+2) (+3) 2(+1) (-2)
+5e-
3. Write the half-equations for the oxidation/reduction of the two substances above:
MnO4 + 5e-  Mn2+
Fe2+ - 1e-  Fe3+
Balance so that:
(a) No. of Mn atoms is equal on both sides
(b) No. of Fe atoms is equal on both sides
(c) electrons gained = electrons lost:
MnO4 + 5e-  Mn2+
5Fe2+ - 5e-  5Fe3+
4. Write the coefficients from step 3 into the original equation:
Mn O4- + 5Fe2+ + H+  Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + H2 O

5. Balance the rest of the equation by inspection (leave H until last):
Mn O4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+  Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2 O
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G. Galvin
Volumetric Analysis – Acids & Bases HL
Name:

1. Concentrations of -define solution
Solutions -define concentration
-define molarity
-express concentration of solutions in mol/L(molarity), g/L and also in % (w/v), % (v/v),
% (w/w)
-appreciate the everyday use of % v/v e.g. in alcoholic beverages
-calculate molarity from concentration in grams per litre and vice versa
-calculate number of moles from molarity and volume
-perform simple calculations involving percentage concentrations
-calculate the effect of dilution on concentration
-apply knowledge of concentrations of solutions to everyday examples
-describe how colour intensity can be used as an indicator of concentration
-Define a primary standard and a standard solution
-prepare standard solution of sodium carbonate
3. Volumetric Analysis (balanced equations will be given in all volumetric problems)
-identify appropriate apparatus used in volumetric analysis

-use correct titrimetric procedure when carrying out titrations
-solve volumetric problems from first principles
-carry out a titration between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions and use
this titration to make a sample of sodium chloride (OL only)
-standardise a hydrochloric acid solution using a standard solution of sodium carbonate
-calculate the relative molecular mass of a compound and of the amount of water of
crystallisation in a compound from titration data
(balanced equations will be given in all volumetric problems)
-determine the concentration of ethanoic acid in vinegar
-determine the amount of water of crystallisation in hydrated sodium carbonate
Defn: A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute and a solvent.

Defn: The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of the solution.
1. %(w/w)
Means grams of solute per 100 g of solution, or g/100g.
E.g. saline solution, 1% (w/w) NaCl = 1g NaCl in 100cm3 solution.
2. %(w/v)
Means grams of solute per 100 cm3 of solution, or g/100 cm3.
E.g. 37% (w/v) HCl = 37g HCl in 100cm3 solution.
3. %(v/v)
Means volume of solute per 100 cm3 of solution, or cm3/100 cm3.
E.g. Alcoholic drinks – Vodka’s alcohol (ethanol) concentration is 37.5% (v/v) = 37.5 cm3 ethanol in 100 cm3 vodka.
4. Parts per Million (ppm)

Means the concentration in mg/L. This is calculated by multiplying the concentration in g/L by 1000.
1000mg = 1g.
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G. Galvin
5. Molarity (M or mol/L)
This is the main unit used in the chemistry course. This means the number of moles of solute in 1 litre of solution.
E.g. A 0.125 M solution of KMnO4 has 0.125 moles of KMnO4 in 1 litre of litre solution.
Calculations
(a) mol/L to g/L
1. How many grams of FeSO4 are present in a solution marked 0.35 M FeSO4?
Mr of |FeSO4 = (56) + (32) + 4(16) = 152

We have 0.35 mol/L FeSO4
×152 [mol to g  × Mr]
=53.2 g/L
2. Calculate the concentration in grams per litre of bench hydrochloric acid whose concentration is 12 mol/L.
Mr of HCl = (1) + (35.5) = 36.5

We have 12 mol/L HCl
× 36.5 [mol to g  × Mr]
=438 g/L HCl
(b) g/L to mol/L
1. What is the molarity of a solution that contains 7.36 g of NaOH per litre of solution?
Mr of NaOH = (23) + (16) + (1) = 40

We have 7.36 g/L NaOH
÷ 40 [g to mol  ÷ Mr]
0.184 mol/L NaOH
2. Calculate the concentration of a solution containing 45 g of sulphuric acid in a litre of solution.
Mr of H2SO4 = 2(1) + (32) + 4(16) = 98

We have 45 g/L H2SO4
÷ 98 [g to mol  ÷ Mr]
0.4592 mol/L H2SO4
(c) How many moles in a certain volume, given the solution’s molarity
1. Calculate how many moles of CH3COOH are present in 25 cm3 of 0.55 M CH3COOH.
We have 0.55 mol/L CH3COOH

0.55
× 25
1000
=0.01375 mol/25 cm3 CH3COOH
If question was phrased “Calculate how many grams of CH3COOH are present in 25 cm3 of 0.55 M CH3COOH”,
we would then have to multiply 0.01375 by the Mr of CH3COOH.
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G. Galvin
2. How many moles of HCl are present in 60 cm3 of 0.4 M HCl?
We have 0.4 mol/L HCl

0.4
1000
× 60
=0.024 mol/60 cm3 HCl
(d) Calculate moles per litre, given the mass of solute and volume of solution
1. Calculate the concentration in moles per litre of a solution containing 45 grams of sulphuric acid per 240 cm3
of solution.
Mr of H2SO4 = 2(1) + (32) + 4(16) = 98

We have 45 g/240 cm3 H2SO4
÷ 98 [g to mol  ÷ Mr]
=0.4592 mol/240 cm3 H2SO4
0.4592
240
× 1000
=1.193 mol/L H2SO4
2. 7.6 g of anhydrous Na2CO3 is dissolved in deionised water and made up to 300 cm3 of solution. Express the
concentration of this solution in mol/L.
Mr of Na2CO3 = 2(23) + (12) + 3(16) = 106

We have 7.6 g/300 cm3 Na2CO3
÷106 [g to mol  ÷ Mr]
=0.0717 mol/300 cm3 Na2CO3
0.0717
× 1000
300
=0.239 mol/L Na2CO3
(e) Compound calculations (combinations of (a) to (d))

1. What mass of sodium hydroxide is contained in 25 cm3 of a 1.5 M solution of sodium hydroxide?
Mr of NaOH = (23) + (16) + (1) = 40

We have 1.5 mol/L NaOH
× 40 [mol to g  × Mr]
= 60 g/L NaOH
60
1000
× 25
=1.5 g/25 cm3 NaOH
2. What volume of 0.01 M KMnO4 solution will contain 5 g of KMnO4?
Mr of KMnO4 = (39) + (55) + 4(16) = 158

We have 0.01 mol/L KMnO4
× 158 [mol to g  × Mr]
= 1.58 g/L KMnO4. This can be rewritten as 1.58 g/1000 cm3 KMnO4
÷1.58
= 1 g/632.9 cm3 KMnO4
×5
= 5 g/3164.6 cm3 KMnO4
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G. Galvin
Dilution of solutions
To find the volume of a concentrated solution needed to make a less concentrated solution, use the formula:
V c × Mc = V d × Md
Vc = Volume of concentrated solution Vd = Volume of dilute solution

Mc = Molarity of concentrated solution Md = Molarity of dilute solution
Examples:
1. What volume of 12 M HCl is needed to make up 500 cm3 of 3 M HCl solution?
𝑉𝑐 × 𝑀𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑 × 𝑀𝑑
𝑉𝑐 × 12 = 500 × 3
500 × 3
= 𝑉𝑑
12
125 𝑐𝑚3 = 𝑉𝑑
2. 15 cm3 of 2 M HNO3 solution is diluted to 250 cm3 in a volumetric flask. What is the new concentration of
the nitric acid?
𝑉𝑐 × 𝑀𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑 × 𝑀𝑑
15 × 2 = 250 × 𝑀𝑑
15 × 2
= 𝑀𝑑
250
0.12 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑑
Standard Solutions
Defn: A standard solution is one whose concentration is accurately known.

Defn: A primary standard is a substance that can be directly weighed and used to make a standard solution. It
must:
 Be available in a pure and stable solid state
 Be soluble in water
 Have a high molecular mass
 Be anhydrous (no water of crystallisation)
Primary Standards: Na2CO3, NaCl
Not Primary Standards: HCl – it is a gas
I2 – it sublimes
H2SO4 – it absorbs moisture from air
NaOH – it absorbs CO2 and moisture from air
KMnO4 – it is reduced by sunlight
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G. Galvin
Equipment used in Titrations Calibration Mark

1. Pipette:
Used to accurately measure a known volume of liquids/solutions.
Procedure for cleaning, filling and transferring solutions using a pipette:
 Rinse with dionised water.

 Rinse with the solution it is to contain (name this solution if you know). [This
is done to remove the water, so the solution in the pipette doesn’t get diluted.]
 Using a pipette filler, fill pipette with solution until the bottom of the meniscus
 reaches the graduation mark, at eye level.
 Let the pipette drain under gravity, touching the tip of the pipette against the
flask to remove the last drop stuck to the tip.
2. Burette:
Used to accurately measure the volume of liquid/solution added.
Procedure for cleaning and filling a burette:
 Rinse with deionised water.

 Rinse with the solution it is to contain (name this solution if you know). [This is
done to remove the water, so the solution in the burette doesn’t get diluted.]
 Clamp vertically.
 Using a funnel, fill the burette above the zero mark.
 Remove the funnel.
 Open the tap to bring the bottom of the meniscus to the zero mark, and to
fill the jet below the tap.
3. Conical Flask:
A specially shaped flask that allows swirling without spilling the contents.
Procedure for cleaning the conical flask:

 Clean with deionised water only. [Any water droplets remaining won’t change the
number of moles of reactant you add].
Acid/Base Titrations:
1. To standardise a solution of HCl using a standard solution of Na2CO3.
Acid: HCl – strong acid Base: Na2CO3 – weak base
Indicator: Methyl Orange (SAWBMO)
Colour change: Yellow to Red
Equation: 2HCl + Na2CO3  NaCl + H2O + CO2
Ratio: 2 HCl : 1 Na2CO3
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G. Galvin
Sample calculation: (2012 HL Q1)
(i) We have 0.05 mol/L Na2CO3

0.05×25
1000
=0.00125 mol/25 cm3 Na2CO3
HCl : Na2CO3
2 : 1
0.0025 : 0.00125
0.0025 mol/20.8 cm3 HCl

0.0025×1000
20.8
=0.12 mol/L HCl
(ii) Mr of HCl = (1) + (35.5) = 36.5
0.12 × 36.5 = 4.38 g/L HCl [mol to g  ×Mr]
2. To determine the concentration of ethanoic acid in vinegar

Acid: CH3COOH – weak acid Base: NaOH – strong base
Indicator: Phenolphthalein (WASBPH)
Colour change: Pink to Colourless [NOT “clear”!]
Equation: CH3COOH + NaOH  CH3COONa + H2O
Ratio: 1 CH3COOH : 1 NaOH
Notes: Vinegar must be diluted beforehand because it is too concentrated. Make sure to multiply the
concentration of the dilute vinegar by the dilution factor to find the concentration of the original
vinegar.
Volume of Diluted Vinegar
Dilution factor =
Volume of Original Vinegar
Clear vinegar should be used to ensure the endpoint is clearly seen.

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G. Galvin
(c)
(i) We have 1.20 g/500 cm3 NaOH
Mr of NaOH = (23) + (16) + (1) = 40
1.20 ÷ 40 [g to mol  ÷Mr]
= 0.03 mol/500 cm3 NaOH
0.03×25
500
=0.0015 mol/25 cm3 NaOH
(ii) CH3COOH : NaOH

1 : 1
0.0015 : 0.0015
0.0015 mol/18.75 cm3 CH3COOH (dilute)

0.0015×1
18.75
=0.00008 mol/1 cm3 CH3COOH (dilute)
(d)
250
(i) 0.00008 mol/1 cm3 CH3COOH (dilute) Dilution Factor = 25
= 10
×10
=0.0008 mol/1 cm3 CH3COOH (original)
×1000
= 0.8 mol/L CH3COOH (original)
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G. Galvin
(ii) % (w/v) means g/100 cm3

We have 0.8 mol/L CH3COOH (original) Mr of CH3COOH = (12) + 3(1) + (12) + (16) + (16) + (1) = 60
× 60 [mol to g  × Mr]
= 48 g/L CH3COOH (original)
÷10
= 4.8 g/100 cm3 CH3COOH (original)
= 4.8 % (w/v)
3. To determine the amount of water of crystallisation in washing soda (hydrated sodium carbonate)
Acid: HCl – strong acid Base: Na2CO3 – weak base
Indicator: Methyl Orange (SAWBMO)
Colour change: Yellow to Red
Equation: 2HCl + Na2CO3  NaCl + H2O + CO2
Ratio: 2 HCl : 1 Na2CO3
Notes: Same as titration number 1, just with extra calculations.
The crystals are made up of Na2CO3.xH2O. We need to find 2 things:
1- the percentage of water of crystallisation, and
2- the value of x.
These calculations can also come up for other compounds – not just in in
this experiment, e.g. finding the percentage water of crystallisation and
value for x in hydrated copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4.xH2O.
Sample Calculation:
Page 8 of 9
G. Galvin
(d)
(i) We have 0.11 mol/L HCl
0.11×26.05
1000
=0.0028655 mol/26.05 cm3 HCl
HCl : Na2CO3
2 : 1
0.0028655 : 0.00143275
0.00143275 mol/25 cm3 Na2CO3

0.00143275×1000
25
=0.05731 mol/L Na2CO3
(ii) Mr of Na2CO3 = 2(23) + (12) + 3(16) = 106

× 106 [mol to g  × Mr]
=6.07486 g/L Na2CO3
(e)
(i) Percentage water of crystallisation = Mass of water in your sample × 100
Mass of your sample
We had 6.07486 g/L Na2CO3 but we only made 500 cm3 of the solution.
÷2
=3.03743 g/500 cm3 Na2CO3 in our solution.
But we weighed out 8.20g of crystals.

The extra mass is the mass of water.
8.20 – 3.03743
= 5.16257g of water in our crystals
5.16257
% water of crystallisation = × 100
8.20
(ii)
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒙𝑯𝟐 𝑶
=
𝑴𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 𝑴𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒙𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Mr of xH2O = x[2(1) + (16)] = 18x
3.03743 5.16257
=
106 18𝑥
5.16257 × 106
𝑥=
18 × 3.03743
x = 10 [round to a whole number if possible]
This means our crystals are actually made up of Na2CO3.10H2O
Page 9 of 9
G. Galvin
Radioactivity HL

Name:

Atomic Structure
8. Radioactivity -define radioactivity
-describe the nature and penetrating ability of alpha, beta and gamma radiation
-give one example each of the following: an α emitter, a β emitter and a γ- emitter
-explain how radiation is detected having seen a demonstration / video ( principles of a
geiger muller tube not required)
-define radioisotopes
-define and explain half life (non-mathematical treatment)
-give a historical outline of:
• Becquerel’s discovery of radiation
• Marie and Pierre Curie’s discovery of radioactivity
-comment on the widespread occurrence of radioactivity
-distinguish between a chemical reaction and a nuclear reaction
(simple equations required, confine to α and β emissions)
-state three uses of radioactivity, including food irradiation and the use of 60Co for
cancer treatment
-explain how 14C is used for age determination (calculations not required)
In certain isotopes of some elements, the nucleus is held together in a very unstable way. This can result in the nucleus
giving off energy to make itself stable, or even breaking up and shooting small pieces of itself off. This giving off of
energy or small pieces of itself is called radioactivity.
Defn: Radioactivity is the spontaneous breaking up of unstable nuclei with the emission of one or more types or
radiation.
Defn: A radioisotope is a radioactive isotope.
History:
1. Henri Bequerel discovered radioactivity by noticing that uranium salts caused shadows to appear on
photographic plates.
2. Pierre and Marie Curie were the first people to isolate and purify (effectively discovering) the radioactive
elements Polonium and Radium.
Types of Radiation:
There are 3 types of radiation given off by radioactive elements:

1. Alpha Particles (α):
An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (no electrons at all). It is effectively the nucleus of a
2+
Helium atom, or a Helium atom with its 2 electrons removed, so we can show an α particle as He .
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G. Galvin
Radioactivity HL

An example of an equation involving α emission is shown below:
Notes:
• The totals of the mass numbers and the atomic numbers on the left and right hand sides are always
equal for equations involving radioactivity.
• The He atom is the α particle.
• Alpha particles have a mass of 4 and an atomic number of 2 (2 protons, 2 neutrons).
• In this reaction, the Po changes to Pb, a different element. This ONLY happens in nuclear reactions.
2. Beta Particles (β):

A beta particle is simply a quickly-moving electron. In elements that have β particle emission, what happens is
that a neutron in the nucleus of the element turns into a proton and an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus,
but the electron is shot off out of the nucleus.
We show a β particle as . The e stands for electron, which has a mass of 0 and an atomic number of -1.
An example of an equation involving β emission is shown below:
Notes:
• The totals of the mass numbers and atomic numbers on both sides of the equation are always equal.
• The atomic number of 6 increases by 1 to 7 during β decay. This is because one of the neutrons has
turned into a proton. (Remember, atomic number is the number of protons, or positive charges in the
nucleus)
• The mass number of 14 stays the same, because neutrons and protons both have the same mass. This
means that even though a neutron has turned into a proton, it still weighs the same.
• When giving a symbol to your element, (C, N, for example) always use the atomic number to match it
to its symbol on the periodic table, not its mass number.
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G. Galvin
Radioactivity HL

3. Gamma Radiation (γ):
Gamma radiation is a very strong form of electromagnetic radiation (like light or x-rays) and travels at the speed
of light. Gamma rays are extremely dangerous because of their high energy and speed. No changes to the
numbers of protons or neutrons in the nucleus happen when gamma radiation is given off.
Properties of Radioactive Particles and Radiation:
Alpha Particles Beta Particles Gamma Radiation

Helium Nuclei Electrons Waves of High Energy
Nature
Charge Positive Negative None
Medium – stopped by 4mm Strong – stopped by several

Penetrating Power Weak – stopped by paper
of Aluminium cm of lead
Americium-241. Used in Carbon-14. Used for Cobalt-60. Used for cancer

Example Radioisotope
smoke detectors. radiocarbon dating. treatment.
A useful diagram to remember the penetrating power of each type of radiation:
Nuclear Reactions:
Defn: A nuclear reaction is a process that alters the composition, sturcture or energy of an atomic nucleus.
Chemical reactions involve changes in the sharing and trandfer of electrons, whereas nuclear reactions involve changes
in the nucleus. The main differences between chemical and nuclear reaction are:
Chemical Reaction Nuclear Reaction

1. Involves electrons Involves nucleus
2. No new elements formed New elements formed
3. No release of nuclear energy Release of nuclear energy
4. Bonds are broken and formed No bonds are broken or formed
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G. Galvin
Radioactivity HL

Half-Life of a Radioisotope:
Defn: The half-life of an element is the time taken for half the nuclei of a radioactive sample to decay.
Radioactive materials decay using a half life. This means that half the sample has decayed after 1 half life. Half of what
remains (1/4 of the original sample) remains after 2 half lives, etc.
Example:
The half-life of Carbon-14 is 5730 years.

If we begin with 10g of 14C, after 5730 years, half that
amount will have decayed to nitrogen, leaving only 5g of
14
C.
After another 5730 years, half of the 5g sample will have
decayed to nitrogen, leaving us with 2.5g of 14C.
After yet another 5730 years, half of the 2.5g of 14C will
have decayed to nitrogen, leving us with 1.25g of 14C.
So, half of the sample decays with each half-life.
Note on Radiocarbon Dating:
Defn: Radiocarbon Dating is a technique used to find

the age of an object containing carbon. It is based on the
ratio of 14C to 12C in the object.
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G. Galvin
Volumetric Analysis: Redox
Name:

3. Volumetric Analysis -carry out a potassium manganate(VII)/ammonium iron(II) sulfate titration
-determine the amount of iron in an iron tablet
-carry out an iodine/thiosulfate titration
-determine the percentage (w/v) of hypochlorite in bleach
Redox Titrations:
1. To prepare a standard solution of Ammonium Iron (II) Sulphate and to use
this to standardise a solution of KMnO4 by titration.
Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4) is not a primary standard as it is not available in a
very pure state. It also is not stable as it decomposes in sunlight.
Ammonium Iron (II) Sulphate used as our primary standard because it is stable in air
and has a high molecular mass. Even though it is not anhydrous, it is stable enough to
use as it doesn’t lose any water to the air.
We use the Ammonium Iron (II) Sulphate to standardise the Potassium
Permanganate.
During this titration there are TWO additions of dilute H2SO4. You need to know the
reasons for each addition:
1. When dissolving our crystals in water to make our standard solution, some
dilute H2SO4 is added to the water to prevent the Fe(II) oxidising to Fe(III) due to oxygen in the air and water.
2. Just before beginning the titration, dilute H2SO4 is added to the conical flask containing the Fe(II). This ensures
the full reduction of Mn(VII) to Mn(II) and prevents the formation of a brown precipitate of Mn(IV).
Oxidising Agent: KMnO4 Reducing Agent: Fe(II) from Ammmonium Iron(II) Sulphate
Indicator: KMnO4 is self indicating.
N.B. At first the pink colour of KMnO4 will decolourise slowly. As more Mn(II) forms during the titration, this
catalyses the decolourisation so that it happens more quickly. This is called autocatalysis.
Colour change: First permanent pale pink (PPP).
Equation: MnO4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+  Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O
Ratio: 1 MnO4- : 5 Fe2+
Page 1 of 8
G. Galvin
Sample question: (2017 HL Q1)
(i) We have 8.82 g/250cm3 (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6H2O
Mr of (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6H2O = 2[14+4(1)] + 32 + 4(16) + 56 + 32 + 4(16) + 6[2(1)+16] = 392

We have 8.82 g/250cm3 (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6H2O
÷ 392 [g to mol  ÷ Mr]
0.0225 mol/250cm3 (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6H2O
=0.0225 mol/250cm3 Fe2+
0.0225
× 25
250
=0.00225 mol/25 cm3 Fe2+
(ii) MnO4- : Fe2+

1 : 5
0.00045 : 0.00225
=0.00045 mol MnO4-
(iii) 0.00045 mol/20.45 cm3 MnO4-
0.00045
× 1000
20.45
=0.022 mol/L MnO4-
Page 2 of 8
G. Galvin
2. To determine the amount of iron in an iron tablet

Oxidising Agent: KMnO4 Reducing Agent: Fe(II) from FeSO4
Indicator: KMnO4 is self indicating.
Colour change: First permanent pale pink.
Equation: MnO4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+  Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O
Ratio: 1 MnO4- : 5 Fe2+
Notes: The tablets are ground up using a pestle and mortar. This is done in
dilute H2SO4 to prevent the oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ due to oxygen
in the air or water. Further dilute H2SO4 is added just before the
titration to ensure the full reduction of Mn(VII) to Mn(II) and to
prevent the formation of a brown precipitate of Mn(IV).
Iron tablets are prescribed by doctors to treat anaemia.
(c)
- Crush tablets using a mortar and pestle, using dilute H2SO4
- Transfer with rinsings to a beaker with some deionised water and dilute H2SO4.
- Stir to dissolve.
- Using a funnel, transfer solution and rinsings to a 250 cm3 volumetric flask.
- Drop by drop, add deionised water to the volumetric flask until the bottom of the meniscus reaches the graduation
mark at eye level.
- Stopper and invert 20 times.
Page 3 of 8
G. Galvin
(e)
(i) 0.01 mol/L MnO4-
0.01
× 18.75
1000
= 1.875 x 10-4 mol/18.75 cm3 MnO4-
MnO4- : Fe2+
1 : 5
1.875 x 10-4 : 9.375 x 10-4
9.375 x 10-4 mol/25 cm3 Fe2+
9.375×10−4
× 1000
25
= 0.0375 mol/L Fe2+
(ii) 0.0375 mol/L Fe2+

÷4
9.375 x 10-3 mol/250 cm3 Fe2+
×56 [mol to g  ×Mr] Mr of Fe = 56
= 0.525 g/250 cm3 Fe2+
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡

(iii) %= × 100
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡
0.525 g of Fe in 5 tablets.
÷5
= 0.105 g Fe in 1 tablet.
From question, each tablet weighs 0.325g.
0.105
%= × 100
0.323
= 32.5%
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G. Galvin
3. To prepare a solution of Sodium Thiosulphate and standardise it by titration against a solution of Iodine.
Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) is not a primary standard as it is not available in a pure enough state. It is also not
anhydrous as it contains water of crystallisation.
Iodine is not a primary standard as it vaporises at room temperature (not stable) and it is not soluble in water. To make
iodine soluble in water, there must be a source of iodide (I-) ions, such as from potassium iodide (KI).
To make a standard solution of iodine we react a standard solution of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) with excess
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and excess potassium iodide (KI). This forms a standard iodine solution, according to the
equation below:
2MnO4- + 10I- + 16H+  2Mn2+ + 5I2 + 8H2O

purple red/brown
From this we can calculate the concentration of the iodine (I2) solution using stoichiometric ratios. Making an I2 solution
from KMnO4 has never been asked about in SEC exams, but it IS examinable.
Oxidising Agent: I2 Reducing Agent: S2O32- (thiosulphate)

Indicator: Starch
Only add starch at straw yellow stage (most of the iodine has reacted with thiosulphate). Adding starch
too early can cause iodine to form a strong complex with starch which won’t decolourise.
add starch
Colour change: red/brown  straw yellow  blue/black  colourless
Equation: I2 + 2S2O32-  2I- + S4O62-
Ratio: 1 I2 : 2 S2O32-
Page 5 of 8
G. Galvin
Sample Calculation (2015 HL Q1):
(d)
(i) We have 6.35 g/500 cm3 I2
Mr of I2 = 2(127) = 254
We have 6.35 g/500cm3 I2
÷ 254 [g to mol  ÷ Mr]
0.025 mol/500cm3 I2
0.025
× 25
500
=0.00125 mol/25 cm3 I2
(ii) I2 : S2O32-
1 : 2
0.00125 : 0.0025 = 0.0025 mol S2O32-
(iii) 0.0025 mol/17.85 cm3 S2O32-
0.0025
× 1000
17.85
=0.14 mol/L S2O32-
(iv) Mr of Na2S2O3.5H2O = 2(23) + 2(32) + 3(16) + 5[2(1) + 16] = 248

× 254 [mol to g  × Mr]
34.72 g/L Na2S2O3.5H2O
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4. To determine the percentage (w/v) of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) in bleach.
In household bleach, the concentration of ClO- (hypochlorite) is too high so we dilute it first. Note your dilution factor.
Before titrating, we react the dilute bleach with excess KI and excess dilute H2SO4 to form an iodine solution, as in the
following equation:
ClO- + 2I- + 2H+  Cl- + I2 + H2O
When we carry out the titration we will find the concentration of the iodine solution we just formed, and use the ratios in
the equation above to find the concentration of ClO-.
Oxidising Agent: ClO- (sometimes given as I2) Reducing Agent: S2O32- (thiosulphate)
Indicator: Starch
Only add starch at straw yellow stage (most of the iodine has reacted with thiosulphate). Adding starch
too early can cause iodine to form a strong complex with starch which won’t decolourise.
add starch
Colour change: red/brown  straw yellow  blue/black  colourless
Equation: I2 + 2S2O32-  2I- + S4O62- (Equation 1)
If we combine this with the equation to form I2 from ClO-,
ClO- + 2I- + 2H+  Cl- + I2 + H2O (Equation 2)
We see that each ClO- forms 1 I2 (equation 2). Each I2 then reacts with 2 S2O32- ions (Equation 1)
From this we get our overall ratio.
Ratio: 1 ClO- : 1 I2 : 2 S2O32-
≡ 1 ClO- : 2 S2O32-
Sample Calculation (2011 HL Q1):
Page 7 of 8
G. Galvin
(e)
(i) 0.10 mol/L S2O32-
0.10
× 16.1
1000
0.00161 mol/16.1 cm3 S2O32-
ClO- : S2O32-
1 : 2
0.000805 : 0.00161
0.000805 mol/25 cm3 ClO- (dil)
0.000805
× 1000
25
=0.0322 mol/L ClO- (dil)
500
(ii) Dilution Factor = 25
= 20
0.0322 × 20
= 0.644 mol/L ClO- (original)
(f)
(i) Mr of NaClO = 23 + 35.5 + 16 = 74.5
0.644 × 74.5 [mol to g  × Mr]
= 47.978 g/L NaClO
(ii) %(w/v) = g/100 cm3 NaClO

47.978 ÷10
4.7978 %(w/v) NaClO
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G. Galvin
Rates of Reaction HL
Name:
Rates of Reaction Objectives

16. Rates of Reaction -define rate of reaction
-define catalysis
-monitor the rate of production of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide, using manganese
dioxide as a catalyst
-plot reaction rate graphs
-interpret reaction rate graphs
-distinguish between average and instantaneous rate
-calculate instantaneous rate from graphs
-explain what is meant by the nature of reactants
-describe and explain how concentration, particle size, temperature, nature of reactants,
and the presence of a catalyst effects the rate of reaction
-describe how to investigate the effect of (i) particle size and (ii) catalysts on reaction
rate
-explain why dust explosions occur
-identify two examples of catalysts produced by living cells (enzymes)
-describe catalytic converters in terms of; nature of catalysts, reactions catalysed,
environmental benefits and catalyst poisons
-investigate the effects on the reaction rate of (i) concentration and (ii) temperature,
using sodium thiosulfate solution and hydrochloric acid
-describe and explain an experiment to show the oxidation of methanol (methyl alcohol)
using a hot platinum or nichrome catalyst
-define activation energy
-describe and explain the influence of temperature change to changes in reaction rate
-draw and interpret reaction profile diagrams
-use reaction profile diagrams to explain the influence of catalyst on the rate of
reaction
Defn: The rate of reaction is the change in concentration of any one reactant or product in unit time. (THINK SPEED)
EXPERIMENT:
When monitoring the production of oxygen gas from the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide using a manganese (IV)
oxide as a catalyst, the following reaction occurs:
H2O2  H2O + ½ O2
If the volume of oxygen gas produced is measured until the reaction stops, a similar graph to this is obtained:
Total Gas Produced

Average Rate =
Total Time Taken
40
=
7
= 5.71 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
Page 1 of 6
G. Galvin
Defn: The instantaneous rate of reaction is the rate of a reaction at any one particular time during the reaction.
For the experiment above, you need to be able to calculate the instantaneous rate for a particular time. The steps involved
are:
1. Draw a tangent to the curve at the time
specified.
2. Choose 2 points on this tangent.
3. Use Rise/Run to find the slope of the tangent
– this is the rate!
Note: Use Rise/Run rather than the slope

formula from the log tables. Marking scheme
did not allow the formula in a previous year!
FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATE:
For particles to react, they need to collide with a certain amount of energy.
Defn: Activation Energy (Eact) is the minimum amount of energy that particles need in order to react.
Defn: An effective collision is a collision between particles that has enough energy for a reaction to occur.
1. Nature of the Reactants:

If the reactants are ionic compounds, they have fast reactions. This is because when ionic compounds are
dissolved in water, their ionic bonds are already broken, and new bonds can quickly form.
If the reactants are covalent compounds, they will react slowly. This is because the covalent bonds in the
reactants need to be broken beofre the new bonds can be formed.
2. Particle Size:
Smaller particle size means faster reactions because the particles have a higher surface area and will collide
more often. This is why powdered chemicals react more quickly than large chips of the same substance.
Dust Explosion: Needs combustible dust, confined area, air, source of ignition.
3. Concentration:
As the concentration of a reactant increases, so does the rate. This is because the number of collisions between
the particles increases. This relationship is directly proportional, i.e., if the concentration is doubled, they rate is
also doubled. (See Mandatory Experiment 14A)
4. Temperature:
As temperature of a reaction mixture increases, so does its rate. This relationship is exponential, not directly
proportional. (See Mandatory Experiment 14B) This is because increasing the temperature increases both the
number of collisions, and the amount of energy in each collision (most significant factor as more collisions will
be effective).
5. Presence of a Catalyst:
Defn: A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction but is not consumed in the reaction.
This works by reducing the amount of energy that particles need to collide with in order to react.
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G. Galvin
PROPERTIES OF CATALYSTS:
1. Catalysts are specific – Each catalyst only acts on one type of reaction.
Enzymes (biological catalysts made by living cells) show this specificity. The enzyme catalase only breaks
down hydrogen peroxide. The enzyme lysozyme only breaks down the cells walls of bacteria.
2. Only needed in very small amounts.
3. If reactions are reversible, the catalysts alters both the forward reaction rate and the reverse reaction rate the
by the same amount.
4. Can be poisoned by certain substances (lead poisons the catalysts in a catalytic converter in a car).
TYPES OF CATALYSIS:
1. Homogeneous Catalysis:
Defn: Homogeneous catalysis is catalsis in which both the reactants and the catalyst are in the same phase (no
boundary between them).
Mechanism of Action (How it works):

Intermediate Formation Theory
1. One reactant reacts with the catalyst to form an intermediate compound.
2. This intermediate is unstable and exists for a very short time.
3. This intermediate reacts with the other reactant, forming the product and the regenerated catalyst.
Example:
Oxidation of Potassium Sodium Tartrate (formula and equations not needed) using hydrogen peroxide and a
Cobalt (II) catalyst.
1. Potassium sodium tartrate and cobalt (II) catalyst mixed together. Solution is pink due to cobalt (II).
2. Hydrogen peroxide is added. Fizzing is seen and the solution turns green. Fizzing is due to the fast reaction
taking place and the green colour is due to the formation of cobalt (III), which is our intermediate.
3. Fizzing stops and solution turns pink again. This is due to the fact that our products are now formed and our
cobalt (II) catalyst has been regenerated.
2. Heterogeneous Catalysis:
Defn: Heterogeneous catalysis is catalsis in which the reactants and the catalyst are in different phases (there is
a boundary between them).
Mechanism of Action (How it works):

Surface Adsorption Theory:
1. Reactant are adsorbed onto the surface of the catalyst, forming temporary bonds.
2. Reactants are close together at high concentrations on the surface and are therefore more likely to collide with
each other and react.
3. The products diffuse away from the surface of the catalyst.
In the following examples, because the reactants are gases, and the catalysts are solids, there is a boundary.
Therefore we have heterogeneous catalysis.
Page 3 of 6
G. Galvin
Example 1:
Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas react quickly to form water
vapour on the surface of a platinum catalyst.
Pt
2 H2 + O2 2H2O
Example 2:
Methanol is heated and some vapourises. Red hot platinum wire catalyst
inserted. Methanol vapours are oxidised to form methanal, hydrogen gas
and carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide temporarily poisons the
catalyst, letting it cool. When catalyst is no longer poisoned, reaction
begins again, heating the catalyst to become red hot. Cycle continues
until methanol is used up. Also note that the hydrogen produced gets
ignited by the hot wire, producing “pops”. Carboard in foil used as a
chimney to allow air in and waste gases out.
Example 3:
A catalytic converter is a device in the exhaust system of vehicles that uses catalysts to convert harmful gases to
less harmful gases. They have a honeycomb structure inside to give it a very high surface area. The interior is
coated in Platinum, Palladium and Rhodium catalysts. Hot, harmful carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide
pass over the catalysts and are converted to the less harmful substances, carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas. The
main reaction is: (we normally show the catalyst above the arrow, as it is not used up or formed in the reaction)
Pt/Pd/Rh
2CO + 2NO 2CO2 + N2

Lead (Pb) is a catalyst poison, and bonds with the catalyst very strongly. This stops the catalyst working as it
blocks the active sites. This is one of the reasons petrol is now “unleaded” i.e. lead is no longer added to
increase its octane rating.
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REACTION PROFILE DIAGRAMS:
Exothermic Reaction:
Endothermic Reaction:
Page 5 of 6
G. Galvin
Exothermic Reaction (with catalyst):
Endothermic Reaction (with catalyst):
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Chemical Equilibrium HL
Name:
Chemical Equilibrium Objectives

17. Chemical Equilibrium -explain what is meant by a reversible reaction
-explain what is meant by dynamic equilibrium
-explain what is meant by chemical equilibrium
-state the equilibrium law (Kc only)
-write expressions for Kc
-perform calculations involving equilibrium constants (Kc)
-state Le Chatelier’s principle
-use Le Chatelier’s principle to predict the effect (if any) on equilibrium
position of concentration, pressure, temperature and catalyst
-perform a simple experiment to demonstrate the following equilibrium mixture
(to demonstrate the effects of both temperature changes and
concentration changes on an equilibrium mixture)
Fe3+ + CNS–  Fe(CNS)2+
-discuss the Industrial application of Le Chatelier’s principle in the Contact process and
in the Haber process
Defn: A reversible reaction is one in which both the forward and reverse reactions can occur.
Defn: A dynamic reaction is one in which both the forward and reverse reactions occur simultaneously.
Defn: Chemical equilibrium is when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
Le Chatelier’s Principle:
Defn: Le Chatelier’s Principle states that when a stress is applied to system at equilibrium, the system adjusts to oppose
the stress.
In other words, if a stress is applied to a reaction at equilibrium (change temperature, concentration or pressure) the
system will form more of the reactants/products to “undo” the change we applied.
Effects of Le Chatielier’s Principle:
Stress LHS RHS

Increase Favours forward reaction Favours reverse reaction
Concentration
Decrease Favours reverse reaction Favours forward reaction
Increase Favours endothermic reaction
Temperature
Decrease Favours exothermic reaction
Pressure Increase Favours side of reaction will the least moles of gas
N.B. Only applied if ALL
reactants and products are Decrease Favours side of the reaction with the largest number of moles of gas
gaseous.
Catalyst No change, as both forward and reverse reactions are sped up equally
Page 1 of 2
G. Galvin
Chemical Equilibrium HL
Industrial Applications of Le Chatelier’s Principle:

1. The Haber Process (Manufacture of Ammonia, NH3)
Fe
3H2 + N2 ⇋ 2NH3 ΔH = -92.4 kJ mol-1 (exothermic in fwd direction)
Ammonia is used to make fertilisers and cleaning agents.
By Le Chatelier’s Principle, the best way to maximise the yield of ammonia is to use
1) High Pressure
2) Low Temperature
The actual conditions used are:
1) 200 atm of pressure (too high could be dangerous)
2) 500oC (even though low temperatures increase yield, they also slow down the rate so it would take too long
to produce – 500oC is a compromise between yield and production times.)
2. The Contact Process (Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4)
We will focus on one step of this reaction, producing sulphur trioxide, SO3, from sulphur dioxide, SO2.
V2O5
2SO2 + O2 ⇋ 2SO3 ΔH = -196 kJ mol-1 (exothermic in fwd direction)
By Le Chatelier’s Principle, the best way to maximise the yield of SO3 is to use
1) High Pressure
2) Low Temperature
The actual conditions used are:
1) 1 atm of pressure (cost of high pressure plant is not worth the increase in yield)
2) 450oC (even though low temperatures increase yield, they also slow down the rate so it would take too long
to produce – 450oC is a compromise between yield and production times.)
The Equilibrium Constant (Kc):
Kc is called the equilibrium constant and represents the relationship between the concentrations of the reactant and
products of a system at equilibrium.
For the reaction: aA + bB ⇋ cC + dD
the equilibrium constant can be written as: E.g. Write the equilibrium constant
expression for the reaction
[𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅 H2 + I2 ⇋ 2HI
𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃
Solution:
Notes:
[𝑯𝑰]𝟐
1. Square brackets represent concentration in mol/L. 𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑯𝟐 ]𝟏 [𝑰𝟐 ]𝟏
They are essential, don’t use round brackets!
2. Coefficients are written as powers.
3. Products are always in the numerator, reactants in the denominator.
4. Kc is unaffected by concentration, pressure or catalyst changes. Temperature changes WILL change Kc.
5. Calculations involving Kc are done using ICE tables. See bppchemistry.weebly.com for worked examples.
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pH and Indicators HL
Name:
pH and Indicators Objectives

18. pH and Indicators -define pH
-describe the use of the pH scale as a measure of the degree of acidity/alkalinity
-discuss the limitations of the pH scale
-explain self-ionisation of water
-write an expression for Kw
-use universal indicator paper or solution to determine pH
-calculate the pH of dilute aqueous solutions of strong acids and bases
-distinguish between the terms weak, strong, concentrated and dilute in relation to
acids and bases
-calculate the pH of weak acids and bases (approximate method of
-calculation to be used – assuming that ionisation does not alter the total
concentration of the non-ionised form)
-define acid-base indicator
-explain the theory of acid-base indicators
-justify the selection of an indicator for acid base titrations
Water only conducts electricity when it contains ions dissolved in it. However, even pure water conducts a very small
current, so there must be some ions present. The ions exist because water self-ionises:
H2O ⇌ H+ + OH-
The equilibrium above lies far to the right i.e. only a very small number of H2O molecules self-ionise.
As the number of H2O molecules that self-ionise is so small, we can say that the concentration of H2O stays constant.
Look at the Kc expression for the self-ionisation of water:
[𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝐾𝑐 =
[𝐻2 𝑂]
Kc is a constant. We also assumed that [H2O] is a constant, so we can bring the [H2O] up and multiply on the left side.
𝐾𝑐 [𝐻2 𝑂] = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻− ]
Kc (a constant) times [H2O] (a constant), gives a constant. We call this constant Kw, the ionic product of water.
Defn: The ionic product of water is 𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻− ]
For water at 25oC it has been found that Kw is 1x10-14. This means
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1 × 10−14
To find [H+], we need to use the fact that [H+]=[OH-] (from the 1:1 ratio in the self-ionisation equation).
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ][𝐻 + ] = 1 × 10−14
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ]2 = 1 × 10−14 See how this could be asked in

HL 2016 Q10 a (iii)
[𝐻 + ] = √1 × 10−14
[𝐻 + ] = 1 × 10−7
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Calculating pH:
Defn: 𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 [𝑯+ ]
For strong acids:

𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 [𝑯+ ]
Find the pH of a solution whose H+ concentration is 7.4 x 10-7 mol/L
Find the pH of a 0.11 mol/L solution of HCl
Find the pH of a 0.5 mol/L solution of H2SO4
Find the H+ concentration of a HCl solution whose pH is 1.9
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G. Galvin
For strong bases:
𝒑𝑶𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 [𝑶𝑯− ]

and
𝒑𝑯 = 𝟏𝟒 − 𝒑𝑶𝑯
Find the pH of a solution whose OH- concentration is 4.6 x 10-9 mol/L
Find the pOH of a 0.35 mol/L solution of NaOH
Find the pH of a 0.75 mol/L solution of Ca(OH)2
Find the OH- concentration of an KOH solution whose pH is 13.2
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G. Galvin
For weak acids:
𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 √𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 × 𝑲𝒂 where Macid is the molarity of the acid and Ka is the dissociation constant of the acid
(given in question).
Find the pH of a 0.1M solution of methanoic acid given that Ka is 2.1 x 10-4
Find the pH of an aqueous solution containing 1.48 g of propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH) in 200 cm3 in solution,
given that the dissociation constant Ka for propanoic acid is 1.36 x 10-5.
Find the molarity of a CH3COOH solution whose pH is 1.9, given the Ka value for CH3COOH is 1.78 x 10-5.
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For weak bases:
𝒑𝑶𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 √𝑴𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 × 𝑲𝒃 where Mbase is the molarity of the base and Kb is the dissociation constant of the base
(given in question). Also remember that pH = 14 - pOH
Find the pH of a 0.15M solution of ammonia (NH3) given that Kb is 1.8 x 10-5
Find the pH of an aqueous solution containing 1.5 g of the basic compound C2H5NH2 in 250 cm3 in solution, given
that the dissociation constant Kb for this base is 4.4 x 10-4.
Find the molarity of a NH3 solution whose pH is 12, given the Kb value for CH3COOH is 1.8 x 10-5.
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Limitations of the pH scale:

1. Only has a range of 0-14.
2. Does not work for concentrated solutions.
3. Only works for aqueous solutions.
Acid/Base Indicators:
Indicators are weak acids/bases that change colour depending on where the equilibrium lies between the undissociated
and dissociated forms.
1) Indicator as a weak acid:
HIn ⇌ H+ + In-
Colour 1 Colour 2
By Le Chatelier’s Principle,
1. Adding H+ (acid) will favour the reverse reaction, so Colour 1 will be seen.
2. Adding OH- (base) will react with the H+ to form water. As this removes H+ from the system, the forward
reaction will be favoured, so Colour 2 will be seen.
2) Indicator as a weak base:
XOH ⇌ X+ + OH-
Colour 1 Colour 2
By Le Chatelier’s Principle,
1. Adding OH- (base) will favour the reverse reaction, so Colour 1 will be seen.
2. Adding H+ (acid) will react with the OH- to form water. As this removes OH- from the system, the forward
reaction will be favoured, so colour 2 will be seen.
Indicators are chosen based on the pH range in which the colour changes. The indicators and pH ranges we need to
know are:
Name of indicator Approx. pH range Acid Colour Base Colour

Methyl Orange 3-5 Red Yellow
Litmus 5-8 Red Blue
Phenolphthalein 8-10 Colourless Pink
Titration Curves:
Strong Acid vs. Strong Base Notes:
1. pH begins near 0.
2. pH finishes near 14.
3. Long vertical section where solution quickly
changes from acidic to basic.
4. Midpoint of this vertical section is the
“equivalence point”.
5. Indicator chosen must completely change
colour within the vertical section in order to be
suitable (methyl orange & phenolphthalein
both suitable here)
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Strong Acid vs. Weak Base Notes:
1. pH begins near 0.
2. pH finishes much lower than 14.
3. Shorter vertical section where solution quickly
suitable (methyl orange only suitable here)
Weak Acid vs. Strong Base Notes:
1. pH begins much higher than 0.

2. pH finishes near 14.
3. Shorter vertical section where solution quickly
suitable (phenolpthalein only suitable here)
Weak Acid vs. Weak Base Notes:
1. pH begins much higher than 0.

2. pH finishes much lower than 14.
3. No vertical section where solution quickly
4. No obvious “equivalence point”.
suitable (no indicator suitable here)
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Environmental Chemistry - Water HL
Name:
Environmental Objectives
Chemistry: Water
19. Environmental -define hardness in water
Chemistry - Water -define temporary hardness in water
-define permanent hardness in water
-identify the causes temporary and permanent hardness in water
-explain how deionisation is achieved using ion exchange resins
-describe a test that can be carried out on scale deposits in a kettle
-describe how hardness can be removed by boiling and by ion exchange
-account the relative purity of deionised and distilled water
-describe the treatment of water under the following headings:
sedimentation, flocculation, filtration, chlorination, fluoridation and pH adjustment
-describe how sewage is treated (primary, e.g. settlement, screening; secondary, e.g.
bacterial breakdown; tertiary, e.g. reduction of level of phosphates and nitrates)
-be aware of the high cost of tertiary treatment of water
-discuss the role of nutrients in the eutrophication of water
-discuss how pollution can be caused by uncontrolled use of nitrate fertilizers
-describe the polluting potential of heavy metals from batteries in the absence of
recycling
-discuss pollution by heavy metal ions in water – especially Pb2+, Hg2+ and Cd 2+
-describe how heavy metal ions in water – especially Pb2+, Hg2+ and Cd 2+ can be
removed from industrial effluent by precipitation
-recall that there are EU limits for various chemical species in water (two examples, e.g.
nitrates, phosphates, specific metal ions)
-outline the basic principles of the following instrumental methods of water analysis:
• pH meter (analysis of river and lake water)
• AAS [cf. flame tests, absorption spectra (unit 1.4)] (analysis of heavy metals in
water e.g. lead, cadmium)
• colorimetry (analysis of (i) lead in water (ii) fertilisers
-carry out a colorimetric experiment to estimate free chlorine in swimming-pool -water
or bleach (using a colorimeter or a comparator)
-determine the total suspended and total dissolved solids (expressed as p.p.m.) by
filtration and evaporation respectively
-determine pH and test water for anions
-estimate the total hardness of water using ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (edta)
(balanced ionic equation required)
-define biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
-estimate dissolved oxygen by redox titration
-describe the effect of organic chemical pollutants e.g. sewage industrial waste, silage,
milk
Hardness in Water:
Defn: Hard Water is water that will not easily form a lather with soap. Hardness in water is caused by Ca2+ and Mg2+
ions dissolved in the water.
When hard water reacts with soap, a scum is formed.
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There are two types of water hardness:

1. Temporary Hardness:
Defn: Temporary Hardness is hardness that can be removed by boiling the water.
Temporary Hardness is due to the presence of the hydrogencarbonate ion (HCO3)
Formation of temporary water hardness:
H2O + CO2 → H2CO3 then H2CO3 + CaCO3 → Ca(HCO3)2

water + carbon dioxide → carbonic acid carbonic acid + calcium carbonate → calcium hydrogencarbonate
Removal of temporary water hardness (boiling):
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 ↓ + CO2 + H2O

calcium hydrogencarbonate → calcium carbonate + carbon dioxide + water
2. Permanent Hardness:
Defn: Permanent Hardness is harness which cannot be removed by boiling the water.
Permanent Hardness is due to the presence of calcium sulphate (CaSO4) or magnesium sulphate (MgSO4).
Methods of Removing Hardness from Water:
1. Distillation: Water is boiled. All dissolved solids which cause

water hardness are left behind in the residue. This is too
expensive to do on a large scale.
2. Using Washing Soda: Washing soda (hydrated sodium
carbonate, Na2CO3.10H2O) reacts with Ca2+ ions in the water to
form calcium carbonate, which is insoluble in water.
3. Ion Exchange Resin: The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in water are
exchanged for Na+ ions, which do not cause water hardness.
Because this resin exchanges positive ions, we call this a cation
exchange resin.
Producing Deionised Water:
All ions need to be removed from water. A cation exchange resin is

used to remove positive ions, along with an anion exchange resin to
remove negative ions.
The cation exchange resin swaps all positive ions for H+ ions.
The anion exchange resin swaps all negative ions for OH- ions.
The H+ and OH- ions combine to form H2O.
Deionised vs Distilled Water:
Deionised water has all suspended and dissolved solids removed,

but there may still be gases dissolved in the water. Distilled water
is the purest form of water as all suspended and dissolved solids,
along with any dissolved gases are removed from the water.
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Advantages and disadvantages of Hard Water:

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Provides calcium for teeth Blocks pipes, leaves scale on
and bones kettles and boilers
2. Nicer taste Wastes soap
3. Good for brewing and tanning Produces scum
leather
Experiment: To determine the total hardness in a water sample using

EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid)
EDTA’s full name needs to be remembered. EDTA reacts with Ca2+ and
Mg2+ ions in water, removing the hardness.
EDTA and Ca2+ (we will only talk about Ca2+ and not Mg2+ from now on to
keep things simpler) react in a 1:1 ratio.
pH Buffer 10 needs to be used (this keeps the pH at a constant value of

10) as EDTA only reacts with Ca2+ at a pH of 10. Also, the indicator used
only works at pH values 8-10.
Indicator used is Eriochrome Black T. Colour change is wine red to blue.
EDTA needs to be stored in a plastic container, as EDTA reacts with the

ions in glass.
Concentration of total water hardness is given in ppm CaCO3 (Mr = 100)
Remember, ppm = mg/L
Water Treatment:
1. Screening: Water passed through wire mesh to remove floating debris.

2. Flocculation: Aluminium Sulphate added. This makes small suspended particles coagulate (stick together) into
larger particles.
3. Sedimentation/Settling: Water flows into the bottom of tanks. Suspended solids settle to the bottom. Clear
water flows out of the top.
4. Filtration: Water passed through sand beds to remove last suspended solids.
5. Chlorination: Chlorine added to kill bacteria. Too much will cause a bad tase. Not enough will allow bacteria to
survive.
6. Fluoridation: Fluoride added to water to prevent cavities in teeth.
7. pH Adjustment: Sulphuric acid is added to water of it too basic. Too much sulphuric acid can cause corrosion
of pipes. Calcium hydroxide is added if water is too acidic. Too much calcium hydroxide can cause an increase
in water hardness.
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Experiment: To determine the total suspended and total dissolved solids in a water sample in ppm.
A known volume of water is passed through filter paper. The filter paper is then dried in an oven. The increase in mass
of the filter paper is used to calulate the total suspended solids in ppm.
A known volume of filtered water is evaporated. The increase in mass of the evaporating basin is used to calculate the
total dissolved solids in ppm.
Water Pollution:
Bacteria feed on organic matter in water. They use up the dissolved oxygen in the water during this process, causing
other organisms to die.
Defn: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen used up by organisms (in ppm) when a
sample of water is left in the dark for 5 days at 20oC.
Defn: Eutrophication is the enrichment of water with nutrients, leading to excessive growth of algae and other plants.
Heavy metals (Pb2+, Cd2+, Hg2+) are toxic. They are removed using precipitation reactions.
Experiment: To measure the amount of dissolved oxygen in a sample of water by means of a redox titration.
We use the Winkler Method. The sample bottle must have so air in it, to avoid extra oxygen dissolving in the sample.
1. Add manganese sulphate, then alkaline potassium iodide. A brown precipitate is formed in the bottle. If a
white precipitate is formed, this means that there is no dissolved oxygen in the water sample.
2. Add sulphuric acid. The brown precipitate dessolves, leaving a clear red/brown solution of iodine.
3. Titrate the iodine solution (water sample) against sodium thiosulphate (in burette).
Indicator is starch. Colour changes are red/brown to straw yellow (then add starch) to blue/black to colorless.
The ratio of O2:S2O32- is 1:4.
Sewage Treatment:
1. Primary Treatment (Physical): Large solids are removed by screening and small suspended solids are removed
by settling.
2. Secondary Treatment (Biological): The Activated Sludge Process is used. Bacteria is added to the waste in a
tank which is being stirred and aerated. The waste is digested by the bacteria.
3. Tertiary Treatment (Chemical): Nitrates and Phosphates are removed from the waste. Nitrates are removed
using denitrifying bacteria. Phosphates are removed using precipitation reactions.
Instrumental Methods of Water Analysis:
1. pH Analysis: pH can be measured using a pH sensor.

2. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS): Used to detect the concentration of heavy metals in water. Works on
the principal that each element has its own unique absorption spectrum, so that element absorbs specific
frequencies of light. The amount of light absorbed tells us the concentration of that element, e.g. lead.
3. Colorimetry: Used to measure the concentration of coloured substances. Works on the principle that the
more light the coloured solution absorbs, the higher its concentration.
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Experiment: To estimate the concentration of free chlorine in swimming pool water using a colorimeter
1. 5 standard calcium hypochlorite solutions of are made up (1ppm, 2ppm, 3ppm, 4ppm, 5ppm).
2. A DPD tablet is added to each of the 5 solutions. Solutions turn pink.
3. Colorimeter is used to measure the aborbance of each solution.
4. The absorbances (y axis) and concentrations (x axis) are plotted on a graph.
5. A DPD tablet is added to the swimming pool water sample to be tested and its absorbance is measured.
6. The graph is used to find the concentration of free chlorine in this water ample, based on its absorbance value.
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Fuels and Heats of Reaction HL
Name:
Fuels and Heats of Objectives

Reaction
21. Fuels and Heats of -define hydrocarbon
Reaction -recall that coal, natural gas and petroleum are sources of hydrocarbons
-recall that decomposing animal and vegetable wastes are sources of methane
-recognise the hazards of methane production in slurry pits coalmines and refuse dumps
-discuss the contribution of methane to the greenhouse effect
-define aliphatic hydrocarbon
-know what a homologous series is
-know that alkanes alkenes and alkynes are examples of homologous series
-apply the IUPAC system of nomenclature to the following homologous series: alkanes
(to C5), alkenes (to C4) and alkynes. (only ethyne to be considered)
-define structural isomers
-draw the structural formulas and structural isomers of alkanes to C-5
-construct models of the alkanes (to C5), alkenes (to C4) alkynes (only ethyne to be
considered)
-draw the structural formulas of hexane, heptane, octane, cyclohexane and 2,2,4-
trimethylpentane
-draw the structural formulas and structural isomers of alkenes to C-4
-state the physical properties of aliphatic hydrocarbons [physical state, solubility
(qualitative only) in water and in non-polar solvents
-describe and explain what is observed during a demonstration of the solubility
properties of methane ethane and ethyne in polar and non-polar solvents
-define aromatic hydrocarbon
-describe the structure of benzene, methylbenzene and ethylbenzene
-state the physical properties of aromatic hydrocarbons [physical state, solubility
(qualitative only) in water and in non-polar solvents
-describe and explain what is observed during a demonstration of the solubility
properties of methylbenzene in polar and non-polar solvents
-recall that chemical reactions can have an associated change in temperature of the
system
-define endothermic and exothermic reactions
-describe and explain what is observed during a demonstration of an endothermic and
exothermic reaction
-explain why changes of state can be endothermic or exothermic
-define heat of reaction
-determine the heat of reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide
-define heat of combustion
-recognise that the combustion of alkanes and other hydrocarbons releases carbon
dioxide, water and energy
-write balanced chemical equations for the combustion of simple hydrocarbons
-relate the sign of enthalpy changes to exothermic and endothermic reactions
-relate energy changes to bond breaking and formation
-explain the concept of bond energy using the calculation of the C-H bond energy in
methane as an illustration
-define heat of combustion
-describe the use of the bomb calorimeter in determining calorific values of foods
-relate the kilogram calorific values of fuels to their uses
-define heat of formation
-state the law of conservation of energy
-state Hess’s law
-calculate heat of reaction using heats of formation of reactants and products
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-calculate heat of formation using other heats of formation and one heat of reaction.
(Other kinds of heat of reaction calculation not required)
-describe the fractional distillation of crude oil
-explain where the main fractions of crude oil (refinery gas, light gasoline, naphtha,
kerosene, gas oil and residue fractions) are produced on the fractionating column
-state the uses of refinery gas, light gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and gas, oil and residue
fraction
-appreciate the rationale for the addition of mercaptans to natural gas
-recall the composition of natural gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and petrol
-describe and explain: auto-ignition, knocking, octane number
-relate the octane number of a fuel to its tendency to cause knocking in the internal
combustion engine
-describe the effect of chain length, degree of branching and cyclic structure on the
tendency of petrol towards auto-ignition in the internal combustion engine
-describe the role played by lead compounds as petrol additives in the past
-explain isomerisation, dehydrocyclisation, catalytic cracking
-describe the role of isomerisation, dehydrocyclisation, and catalytic cracking in the
increase of the octane rating of fuel
-oxygenates
-prepare a sample of ethyne
-recognise oxyacetylene welding and cutting as principle uses of ethyne (acetylene)
-carry out an experiment to demonstrate the properties of ethyne (acetylene)
[combustion, tests for unsaturation using bromine water and acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution]
-describe the manufacture of hydrogen by:
•electrolysis of water
•steam reforming of natural gas (simple treatment only)
-list some industrial uses of hydrogen including its potential as a fuel
Defn: Organic Chemistry is the study of the compounds of carbon.

Defn: Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only.
Defn: Fossil Fuels are fuels that were formed from the remains of dead plants and animals that lived millions of years
ago.
Defn: A homologous series is a series of compounds with similar chemical properties, a general chemical formula and
with each successive member differing by CH2.
The Alkanes:
This homologous series has only single bonds between the carbon atoms. They are saturated hydrocarbons and have
tetrahedral geometry.
Defn: A Saturated compound is a compound in which there are only single bonds between its atoms.
In the following table showing the molecular formulae and structural formulae of the first 10 alkanes, note that each
member is different to the next by CH2 and there are only single bonds.
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ALKANES:
No. of C
Prefix IUPAC Name Molecular Formula Structural Formula
atoms
1 Meth- Methane CH4
2 Eth- Ethane C2H6
3 Prop- Propane C3H8
4 But- Butane C4H10
5 Pent- Pentane C5H12
6 Hex- Hexane C6H14
7 Hept- Heptane C7H16
8 Oct- Octane C8H18
9 Non- Nonane C9H20
10 Dec- Decane C10H22
Notes:
1. The names of all of the alkanes end in –ane.
2. They all follow the general formula CnH2n+2.
Properties of Alkanes:
1. Soluble in non-polar solvents, e.g. cyclohexane.
2. Insoluble in water because the alkanes are non-polar – they only have Van-der-Waals forces between the molecules.
3. C1-C4 are gases. C5-C16 are liquids. C17 and above are waxy solids – this is because the larger molecules have stronger
Van-der-Waals forces, increasing their boiling and melting points.
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Defn: Structural isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formulae but different structural formulae.
Example:
The two compounds here are both made up using 4 carbon atoms and 10 hydrogen atoms. However, they are arranged
differently. They are different compounds with different properties because of this and we therefore call these
compounds structural isomers of each other.
Naming Alkanes:
Give the systematic IUPAC name for the following hydrocarbon:
Step 1: Identify the longest continuous carbon chain – name this parent molecule.
5 carbon chain  pent-

Saturated compound – all single bonds  -ane
The parent molecule is pentane.
Step 2: Number the carbon chain starting from the end that gives the branches the lowest possible numbers.
Methyl groups on C2 and C3 Methyl groups on C3 and C4
Step 3: Indicate the type and position of the branches.

There are two methyl branches on C2 and C3, so we show this by writing 2,3-dimethyl
The name of the compound is 2,3-dimethylpentane.
[Note: Put commas between numbers, dashes (-) between numbers and words, and NO spaces]
See other, more complex worked examples at https://bppchemistry.weebly.com/drawingnaming-hydrocarbons.html
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Drawing Alkanes:
Draw the structural formula of 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylhexane.
Step 1: From the name we see the parent alkane is hexane. We draw 6 carbons with single bonds between them and
then number them from either side.
Step 2: Add the branches at the correct positions. The branches present (from the name) are:
- An ethyl group on C3
- A methyl group on C2
- A methyl group on C5
Step 3: Fill in hydrogens to ensure that every carbon has 4 bonds.
The Alkenes:
This homologous series has a double bond between two of the carbon atoms. They are unsaturated hydrocarbons and have
planar geometry.
Defn: An Unsaturated compound is a compound which contains one or more double or triple bonds between its atoms.
In the following table showing the molecular formulae and structural formulae of the first 4 alkenes, note that each
member is different to the next by CH2 and there is a double bond.
ALKENES:
Double
No. of C Molecular
Prefix Bond IUPAC Name Structural Formula
atoms Formula
Location
2 Eth- C1 Ethene C2H4
3 Prop- C1 Propene C3H6
4 But- C1 But-1-ene C4H8
4 But- C2 But-2-ene C4H8
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Notes:
1. The names of the alkenes end in –ene, with the carbon where the double bond begins appearing in the name.
2. They all follow the general formula CnH2n.
Properties of Alkenes:
2. Insoluble in water because the alkenes are non-polar – they only have Van-der-Waals forces between the molecules.
3. C1-C3 are gases. C4-C14 are liquids. C15 and above are waxy solids – this is because the larger molecules have stronger
Van-der-Waals forces, increasing their boiling and melting points.
Naming Alkenes:
Give the systematic IUPAC name for the following hydrocarbon:
Step 1: Identify the longest continuous carbon chain containing the C=C double bond. This is the parent molecule.
6 carbon chain  hex-

Unsaturated compound – C=C double bond  -ene
The parent molecule is hexene.
Step 2: Number the carbons in the parent molecule from the side closest to the double bond. Put the position of where
the C=C double bond begins into the name of the compound.
C=C begins on C2  Hex-2-ene

Step 3: Indicate the type and position of the branches.
There is a methyl branch on C5, so we show this by writing 5-methyl
The name of the compound is 5-methylhex-2-ene.
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Cyclic Hydrocarbons:
When a hydrocarbon’s longest chain of carbon atoms forms a closed ring, we begin its IUPAC name with “cyclo”.
For example:
Cyclohexane contains six carbon atoms, singly bonded, in a closed
ring.
Or Note: In the second structure, each point/vertex represents a carbon
atom, each line represents a single bond, and hydrogens are left out.
Cyclohexene contains six carbon atoms, with a C=C double

bond, in a closed ring.
Or Note: The double-line in the second structure represents the

C=C double bond.
The Alkynes:
This homologous series has a triple bond between two of the carbon atoms. They are unsaturated hydrocarbons. They
have planar geometry.
There is only one alkyne on the LC course and it is ethyne (old name acetylene)
No. of C Molecular
Prefix IUPAC Name Structural Formula
atoms Formula
2 Eth- Ethyne C2H2
Notes:
1. The names of the alkenes end in –yne.
2. They all follow the general formula CnH2n-2.
3. Ethyne is used in oxyacetylene for welding and cutting metal. Ethyne and oxygen burn at a very high temperature.
Properties of Alkynes:
2. Insoluble in water because the alkynes are non-polar – they only have Van-der-Waals forces between the molecules.
The Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
Defn: Aromatic compounds are compounds which contain a benzene ring. (More detail given in Ch. 22)
Some aromatic compounds are:
Benzene Methylbenzene Ethylbenzene
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OIL REFINING:
Crude oil is made up of a mixture of different hydrocarbons. Fractional distillation is used to separate these different
hydrocarbons into groups called fractions, based on their boiling points.
How does fractional distillation

work?
1. Hot, vaporised crude oil
enters the bottom of the
column.
2. The column has a high
temperature at the
bottom and a low
temperature at the top.
3. Larger molecules have
higher boiling points.
4. Large molecules
condense and are
collected near the
bottom of the column.
5. Smaller molecules
condense and are
collected further up the
column where it is
cooler.
Note: The refinery gas fraction is collected and bottled under pressure as LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas).
This consists of propane and butane and is used for cooking. Sulphur compounds called mercaptans are added
to LPG in order to give it a smell so that leaks can be detected.
Natural gas does not come from the fractional distillation of crude oil. It is found on its own in in porous rock
deep underground. Natural gas consists of methane and ethane and also has mercaptans added.
OCTANE NUMBER:
Defn: The octane number of a fuel is a measure of its tendency to resist autoignition (knocking).
Defn: Autoignition is the premature ignition of a fuel-air mixture before a spark is produced.
When a petrol engine uses a fuel with a low octane number, the fuel can autoignite, causing:
1. Excess wear on the engine
2. Loss of power.
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Reference Hydrocarbons:
There are two reference hydrocarbons used to give a fuel its octane number:
Name: Heptane
Octane Number: 0
1. Long chain
2. No branching
Name: 2,2,4-trimethylpentane
Octane Number: 100
1. Short chain
2. Branching
When you see a petrol pump that says “Octane 95”, that means the fuel has the same tendency to autoignite as a mixture
of 95% 2,2,4-trimethylpentane and 5% heptane.
Factors that affect Octane Number:
1. Length of chain: Shorter carbon chains have higher octane numbers.
2. Degree of branching: The more branching a hydrocarbon has, the higher its octane number.
3. Presence of rings: Ring structures give a fuel a higher octane number. Benzene rings have higher octane
numbers again.
Processes that Raise the Octane Number of a Fuel:

1. Isomerisation: This involves changing straight chain alkanes into their branched isomers to raise octane
number.
2. Catalytic Cracking: This involves using heat and a catalyst to break down long chain hydrocarbons into short
chain molecules. This is done because there is higher demand for shorter chain molecules with higher octane
numbers. One of the products of catalytic cracking will always be an alkene.
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3. Dehydrocyclisation: This involves using catalysts to change linear molecules into cyclic molecules, and cyclic
molecules into aromatic compounds. Hydrogen gas is also formed.
4. Adding Oxygenates: This is the addition of oxygen-containing compounds to a fuel in order to raise its octane
number and make it burn “cleaner” as less carbon monoxide is formed when it is burned.
Examples of oxygenates are methanol, ethanol and MTBE (methyl tertiary-butyl ether).
5. Addition of lead (Pb) [BANNED in 2000]: Lead compounds (tetraethyl lead) used to be added to petrol to
increase its octane number. This has been banned because lead is a poisonous health hazard and poisons the
metals in a car’s catalytic converter. This is why petrol pumps say “Unleaded”.
HYDROGEN AS A FUEL:
There are two ways to produce hydrogen gas for use as a fuel:
1. Steam Reforming of Natural Gas:
Steam is reacted with natural gas using a catalyst:
CH4 + H2O  3H2 + CO
2. Electrolysis of Water:
An electric current is passed through water:
H2O  H2 + ½O2
This method of producing hydrogen is too expensive to be practical.
Uses of hydrogen:
1. Used to produce ammonia (NH3) [see Ch. 17)
2. Used to hydrogenate vegetable oils to produce margarine.
3. Burned as a fuel because it is environmentally friendly – its only waste product is water:
H2 + ½O2  H2O
Note: Hydrogen forms a very explosive mixture with air and is therefore difficult to store and transport
safely, without risk of explosion.
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THERMOCHEMISTRY:
Defn: An exothermic reaction is one that gets hotter (produces heat).
Defn: An endothermic reaction is one that gets cooler (absorbs heat).
Defn: Heat of reaction (ΔH) is the heat change when the number of moles of the reactants indicated in the balanced
chemical equation for the reaction react completely.
Notes:
1. If the ΔH value is negative, the reaction is exothermic and gets hotter.
2. If the ΔH value is positive, the reaction is endothermic and gets cooler.
Heat of Combustion:
Defn: Heat of combustion (ΔH) is the heat change when one mole of a substance is burned completely in excess
oxygen.
The heat of combustion of a substance can be experimentally measured using a Bomb Calorimeter:
1. The sample to be tested is placed into the metal bomb

along with pressurised oxygen gas.
2. Ignition wires ignite the sample.
3. The burning sample heats the water up.
4. The stirrer ensures the heat is evenly spread.
5. The thermometer reads the increase in the water
temperature.
6. The heat of combustion can then be calculated.
ΔH = mcΔT [used later in experiment 22]
Writing Balanced Equations for Heat of Combusion:

Write a balanced equation for the combustion of propane.
Note: All hydrocarbons need oxygen to combust, and the products formed will always be carbon dioxide and water.
Therefore, combustion equations will always be of the form:
FUEL + O2  CO2 + H2O
So our equation is:
C3H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O
Finally, balance this equation: [Hint – balance C first, then H, and finally O atoms]
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
Note: You MUST have only 1 mole of fuel in your equation, as Heat of Combustion is defined in terms of 1 mole of
fuel.
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Defn: The Kilogram Calorific Value of a fuel is the heat energy produced when 1 kg of the fuel is burned completely in
oxygen.
Bond Energy:
ΔH comes from the fact that, in a reaction, covalent bonds are broken and new ones are formed. Breaking bonds
requires energy. Making bonds releases energy. By calculating how much energy is needed to break the bonds and how
much energy is given off by making the new bonds, we can calculate ΔH.
Defn: Bond Energy is the average energy required to break one mole of a particular covalent bond and to separate the
neutral atoms completely from each other.
Heat of Neutralisation:
Defn: Heat of Neutralisation (ΔH) is the heat change when one mole of H+ ions from an acid reacts with one mole of
OH- ions from a base.
Note: 1 mole of HCl will produce 1 mole of H+ ions when in solution, which makes calculations straightforward.
However, 1 mole of H2SO4 produces 2 moles of H+ ions when in solution, meaning the ΔH calculated must be divided
by 2, as the definition specifies that Heat of Neutralisation involves 1 mole of H+.
Heat of Formation:
Defn: The Heat of Formation (ΔH) of a compound is the heat change that takes place when one mole of the compound
is formed from its elements in their standard states.
Note: By “elements in their standard states” we mean how they exist in nature. Remember, for “Hydrogen and the
Secret 7” the elements exists as diatomic molecules (e.g. H2, N2, O2, Cl2, etc.,). All other elements are monoatomic (e.g.
C, Na, Al, Ca, etc.,)
Writing Balanced Equations for Heat of Formation:

Write balanced equation for the formation of methane from its elements in their standard states.
To approach this, we look at the elements present in methane (CH4): C and H.
The standard state of each of these elements are C and H2.  These will become the left hand side of our equation:
C + H2  CH4
Finally, balance, making sure methane has a coefficient of 1, to keep with the definition:
C + 2H2  CH4
Hess’s Law:
Defn: Hess’s Law states that the heat change for a reaction is independent of
the pathway taken.
Defn: The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another.
Using Hess’s Law we can calculate the heat change for reactions, if we are
given the heat changes for related reactions.
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Hess’s Law Calculation:

Calculate the heat of formation of methane given that the heats of formation of carbon dioxide and water, respectively,
are -393 kJ mol-1 and -286 kJ mol-1 and the heat of combustion of methane is -879 kJ mol-1.
Step 1: Identify what you are being asked to calculate. This will ALWAYS either be (i) a heat of reaction for a given
balanced equation, (ii) a heat of formation or (iii) a heat of combustion. This may involve writing your own chemical
equation.
We are asked here to calculate the heat of formation of methane. We were not given a balanced chemical equation so we
need to write the balanced equation for the formation of methane from its elements in their standard states. Methane’s
chemical formula is CH4.
C + 2H2  CH4
Step 2: Write down the balanced chemical equations for the other pieces of information we have been given. We need to
write down the formation equations for carbon dioxide and water, and the combustion equation for methane.
ΔH (kJ mol-1)
1. C + O2  CO2 -393
2. H2 + ½ O2  H2O -286
3. CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O -879
Step 3: Match one element/compound in each of the 3 equations above to our main equation. If, in one of the 3
equations, there are two chemicals that also appear in the main equation, use the more complicated of the two.
For eqn 1:
C appears in both eqn 1 and the main equation. They both have the same coefficient (1 in this case) and they both appear
on the same side of the arrow (both on the left). This means we can keep eqn as it is:
Eqn 1: C + O2  CO2 ΔH = -393 kJ mol-1
For eqn 2:
H2 appears both in eqn 2 and in the main equation. They both appear on the same side of the arrow (both on the left). To
make their coefficients match we need to multiply eqn by 2. To do this we multiply everything in eqn by 2, including the
value for ΔH.
H2 + ½ O2  H2O ΔH = -286 kJ mol-1 (x2)
Eq 2: 2H2 + O2  2H2O
n
ΔH = -572 kJ mol-1
For eqn 3:
CH4 appears in both eqn 3 and in the main equation. They have the same coefficient, so we don’t need to multiply.
However, they appear on opposite sides of the arrow. This means we “flip” eqn 3 around the arrow, and change the sign
of ΔH.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O ΔH = -879 kJ mol-1 (flip)
Eqn 3: CO2 + 2H2O  CH4 + 2O2 ΔH = +879 kJ mol-1
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Step 4: Rewrite your adjusted 3 equations and add: [cancel species that appear on both sides of the arrow]
ΔH (kJ mol-1)
1. C + O2  CO2 -393
2. 2H2 + O2  2H2O -572
3. CO2 + 2H2O  CH4 + 2O2 +879
C + 2H2  CH4 -86
Note: We know this is the correct solution as our final equation is the same as our main equation.
See other, more complex worked examples at https://bppchemistry.weebly.com/hesss-law-calculations.html
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Electrochemistry HL
Name:
Electrochemistry Objectives
20. Electrochemistry -explain what happens at each electrode during the electrolysis of:
•copper sulfate solution with copper electrodes
•acidified water with inert electrodes (half equations only required)
-describe and account for the observations of what happens at each electrode
during the electrolysis of (teacher demo)
•aqueous sodium sulfate (using universal indicator)
•aqueous potassium iodide (using phenolphthalein indicator) with inert electrodes
(half equations only required)
-describe the extraction of copper by displacements using scrap iron
-describe and explain ionic movement as observed during teacher demonstration
-describe the following electrolytic processes: purification of copper, chrome and nickel
plating. Give one everyday application of chrome and nickel plating e.g. cutlery
-arrange the electrochemical series of metals in order of their ease of oxidation
(reactions, other than displacement reactions, not required)
n
Def : Electrolysis is the use of electricity to carry out a chemical reaction.
Electrolysis is carried out using a battery, electrodes and an electrolyte.
Battery: Provides energy for the reaction to occur.
Electrolyte: Aqueous solution containing dissolved ions so that it can conduct electricity
Electrodes: Anode: Positively charged electrode (connected to positive terminal of battery)
Cathode: Negatively charged electrode (connected to negative terminal of the battery)
Electrodes are usually made of carbon or platinum as they are inert
(unreactive).
Main events that occur during electrolysis:
1. Anode attracts negative ions (anions) from the electrolyte.
2. The energy from the battery allows the anions to lose electrons to the
anode. [OXIDATION of the anions]
3. The cathode attracts positive ions (cations) from the electrolyte.
4. The energy from the battery allows the cations to gain electrons from
the cathode [REDUCTION of the cations]
Experiment 1: Using electrolysis on a

solution of potassium iodide (KI) with
some added phenolphthalein using inert
electrodes
Observation: Brown colour around anode.
Pink colour around cathode.
Explanation: Anode: 2I- - 2e-  I2 [I2 is red/brown in solution]
Cathode: 2H2O + 2e-  H2 + 2OH- [OH- ions are basic, giving pink colour
………………………………………………………….in phenolphthalein]
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Electrochemistry HL
Experiment 2: Using electrolysis on acidified water using inert electrodes

Small amount of H2SO4 added to the water to allow it to conduct electricity
Observation: 1 volume of oxygen gas produced at the anode.
2 volumes of hydrogen gas produced at the cathode.
Explanation: Anode: H2O - 2e-  2H+ + ½O2
Cathode: 2H+ + 2e-  H2
Overall: H2O  H2 + ½O2
Experiment 3: Using electrolysis on a solution of sodium sulphate with some universal indicator using inert
electrodes
Observation: Solution turns red at the anode.
Solutions turns blue at the cathode.
Explanation: Anode: 2H2O - 4e-  O2 + 4H+ [H+ as acidic, so indicator turns red]
Cathode: 2H2O + 2e-  H2 + 2OH- [OH- is basic so indicator turns blue]
Experiment 4: Using electrolysis on a solution of copper (II) sulphate using copper electrodes.
Observation: Cathode becomes smaller.
Anode grows.
Explanation: Anode: Cu - 2e-  Cu2+ [Cu2+ formed dissolves into the
………………………………………………….electrolyte]
Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu [Solid, pure Cu is deposited
…………………………………………………….onto the cathode]
This process is used to purify copper in industry for electronics.
Experiment 5: Showing the movement of ions due to an electric field

Copper Chromate (CuCrO4) is green in solution. It is made up of Cu2+ = blue and CrO42- = yellow mixed together.
If put into an electric field, the blue Cu2+ is attracted to the negative cathode while the yellow CrO42- is attracted to the
positive anode.
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Electrochemistry HL
Electroplating:
Defn: Electroplating is where electrolysis is used to put a layer of one metal onto the surface of another.
Electroplating is used for plating cutlery, coins and jewellery to make it more attractive. It is also used to plate reactive
metals (e.g. Fe) with less reactive metals (e.g. Ni) to prevent corrosion.
Conditions needed for electroplating:
1. The metal to be plated must be the negative cathode.
2. The electrolyte must contain ions of the metal we are plating with.
3. The positive anode must be the metal we want to plate
with.
E.g., To plate a nickel (Ni) coin with silver (Ag),
1. The cathode is the coin.
2. The electrolyte must contain Ag ions (in this case, Ag+
…………………………………………..from silver nitrate)
3. The anode is a solid bar of Ag metal.
The Electrochemical Series:

Defn: The electrochemical series is a list of elements in order of their standard electric potentials.
In simple English, it is a list of elements. The elements at the top of the list lose electrons more easily than elements
further down.
Elements at the top are more reactive than elements further down.
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Some Families of Organic Compounds HL
Name:
Organic Chemistry Objectives

22. Some Families of -define tetrahedral carbon
Organic Compounds -explain what is meant by the term alcohol
-describe the alcohols as a homologous series of organic compounds
-explain what is meant by the term chloroalkane
-name the chloroalkanes and alcohols (primary and secondary alcohols
only) up to C4
-discuss the use of chloroalkanes as solvents
-draw the structural formulas of chloroalkanes and alcohols (primary and
secondary alcohols only) up to C4
-account for the physical properties [physical state, solubility (qualitative
only) in water and in non-polar solvents]of the alkanes and chloroalkanes
and alcohols up to C4
-relate the physical properties of alcohols and water through comparison of
their structures
-account for the solubility of (a) methanol (methyl alcohol) and (b) butan-1-ol in
(i) cyclohexane and (ii) water.
-discuss the use of ethanol (ethyl alcohol) as a solvent
-outline the use of methanol (methyl alcohol) as a denaturing agent
-recall that fermentation is a source of ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
-discuss the use of fermentation in the brewing and distilling industries
-define planar carbon
-define carbonyl compound
-describe the bonding in the carbonyl group
-describe aldehydes as a homologous series of compounds
-construct models to illustrate the structure of aldehydes
-name the aldehydes to C4
-draw the structural formulas of the aldehydes up to C4
-account for the physical properties [physical state, solubility (qualitative only) in water
and in non-polar solvents]of the aldehydes up to C4
-account for the solubility of ethanal (acetaldehyde)in (i) cyclohexane and in (ii) water
-recall that benzaldehyde is a constituent of almond kernels (structure of
benzaldehyde not required)
-describe ketones as a homologous series of compounds
-construct models to illustrate the structure of ketones
-name the ketones to C4
-draw the structural formulas of the ketones to C4
-account for the physical properties [physical state, solubility (qualitative only) in
water and in non-polar solvents]of the ketones up to C4
-account for the solubility of propanone (acetone) in (i) cyclohexane and in (ii) water
-give an example of the use of propanone (acetone) as a solvent e.g. in nail varnish
remover
-describe carboxylic acids as a homologous series of compounds
-construct models to illustrate the structure of carboxylic acids
-name the carboxylic acids to C4
-draw the structural formulas of the carboxylic acids to C4
-describe the bonding in the carbonyl group of carboxylic acids
-account for the solubility of ethanoic (acetic) acid in (i) cyclohexane and in (ii) water
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G. Galvin
-account for the physical properties [physical state, solubility (qualitative only) in water
and in non-polar solvents] of the carboxylic acids up to C4
-give examples of carboxylic acids in everyday life e.g. methanoic acid (formic acid) in -
nettles and ants, ethanoic acid (acetic acid) in vinegar
-recall the use of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) in the manufacture of cellulose acetate
(structure of cellulose acetate not required)
-recall the use of propanoic and benzoic acid and their salts as food preservatives
(structure of benzoic acid not required)
-describe esters as a homologous series of compounds
-construct models to illustrate the structure of esters
-name the esters to C4
-draw the structural formulas of the esters to C4
-account for the physical properties of esters [physical state, solubility (qualitative
only) in water and in non-polar solvents]
-account for the solubility of ethyl ethanoate (ethyl acetate) in (i) cyclohexane and in
(ii) water
-recall that fats are natural esters
-appreciate that esters have a characteristic aroma
-recall the use of ethyl ethanoate (ethyl acetate) as a solvent
-explain what is meant by an aromatic compound
-explain in simple terms the use of the circle to represent the identical bonds in
benzene, intermediate between double and single
-describe the bonding in benzene with reference to sigma and pi bonds
-account for the solubility of methylbenzene in (i) cyclohexane and in (ii) water
-discuss the use of methylbenzene as an industrial solvent
-give an indication of the range and scope of aromatic chemistry (Structures not
required)
-identify the benzene ring in the structural formulas of a range of consumer products
-give one example in each case of:
aromatic compounds as the basis of dyestuffs, detergents, herbicides and many
pharmaceutical compounds (structures not required)
-aromatic acid-base indicators: phenolphthalein, methyl orange (structures not
required)
-recognise the carcinogenic nature of some aromatic compounds e.g. benzene
-recognise that not all aromatic compounds are carcinogenic, e.g. aspirin (structure of
aspirin not required)
IMPORTANT: YOU NEED TO BE ABLE TO NAME AND DRAW THE STRUCTURAL FORMULAE OF
EACH TYPE OF COMPOUND COVERED IN THIS SECTION
Tetrahedral Carbons:
A tetrahedral carbon is a carbon atom which has tetrahedral
geometry. This geometry happens only when the carbon atom has
4 single bonds (saturated).
We will look at 2 types of compounds which contain only

tetrahedral carbons:
1. Chloroalkanes
2. Alcohols
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1. Chloroalkanes
Defn: A Chloroalkane is a compound in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms in an alkane have been replaced
by chlorine atoms.
Examples: (Chlorine group is named using the prefix “chloro”)
chloromethane trichloromethane 1,2-dichloropropane
Uses: Chloroalkanes are used as industrial solvents, e.g. in dry cleaning.

Physical Properties:
1. Chloroalkanes are weakly polar. They are not soluble in water. They are soluble in non-polar solvents
(cyclohexane).
2. Liquids at room temperature.
2. Alcohols
Defn: A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms which are responsible for the characteristic properties of
an organic compound or a series of organic compounds.
Functional Group: -OH Name ends in “-ol”
Examples:
ethanol methanol propan-2-ol
Types of Alcohols:
Primary Alcohols: An alcohol where the carbon atom bonded to the OH group is bonded to only 1 other carbon.
Secondary Alcohol: An alcohol where the carbon atom bonded to the OH group is bonded to 2 other carbons.
Tertiary Alcohol: An alcohol where the carbon atom bonded to the OH group is bonded to 3 other carbons.
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Ethanol:
Ethanol (C2H5OH) is the most common and best known alcohol. It is found in alcoholic drinks.
It is made by fermenting glucose using yeast: C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
To prevent people from drinking industrial ethanol, methanol is added, as it is particularly toxic. This ethanol is now
denatured and is called methylated spirits.
1) Alcohols have higher boiling points than their corresponding alkanes. This is due to hydrogen bonding
between the alcohol molecules.
2) Small alcohol molecules are soluble in water due to the hydrogen bonding between the molecules. Larger
alcohol molecules (e.g. butanol) are not soluble in water as the effect of the hydrogen bonding decreases as
the molecule gets bigger. These larger alcohols are soluble in non-polar solvents like cyclohexane.
Planar Carbons:
A planar carbon is a carbon atom which has
planar geometry. This geometry happens only
when the carbon atom is unsaturated (contains a
double- or triple-bond)
We will look at 5 types of planar compounds:
1. Aldehydes
2. Ketones
3. Carboxylic Acids
4. Esters
5. Benzene and Natural Compounds Containing Benzene Rings
1. Aldehydes:
Functional Group: -CHO Name ends in “-al”.
Examples:
methanal ethanal propanal
Carbonyl Group: The highly polar C=O carbonyl group is always located at the end of the carbon chain in an
aldehyde.
The polar carbonyl group in aldehydes mean that aldehyde molecules have dipole-dipole intermolecular forces.
1. Boiling points of aldehydes are higher than their respective alkanes due to the dipole-dipole forces between
the aldehyde molecules being stronger than the weak Van-der-Waals forces between the alkane molecules.
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2. The boiling points of aldehydes are lower than their corresponding alcohols due to the dipole-dipole forces
between aldehyde molecules being weaker than the hydrogen bonding that occurs between alcohol
molecules.
3. Small aldehyde molecules are soluble in water due to the polar carbonyl group. The larger the aldehyde
molecule becomes, the less soluble the aldehyde is in water, as the effect of the polar carbonyl group
decreases.
Aromatic Aldehyde: (aromatic = a compound containing a benzene ring)
Benzaldehyde smells like almonds as it is found in almond kernels. It is used as a

flavouring agent.
2. Ketones:
Functional Group: -CO- Name ends in “-one”.
Examples:
Propanone Butan-2-one
Uses: Propanone (also called acetone) is used in nail polish remover.
Carbonyl Group: The highly polar C=O carbonyl group is always located on one of the central carbons, and never at
the end of the carbon chain in a ketone.
The polar carbonyl group in ketones mean that ketone molecules have dipole-dipole intermolecular forces.
1. Boiling points of ketones are higher than their respective alkanes due to the dipole-dipole forces between the
ketone molecules being stronger than the weak Van-der-Waals forces between the alkane molecules.
2. The boiling points of ketones are lower than their corresponding alcohols due to the dipole-dipole forces
between ketone molecules being weaker than the hydrogen bonding that occurs between alcohol molecules.
Small ketone molecules are soluble in water due to the polar carbonyl group. The larger the ketone molecule
becomes, the less soluble the ketone is in water, as the effect of the polar carbonyl group decreases.
Note: Corresponding aldehydes and ketones are structural isomers e.g. propanal and propanone. (Draw both
structures to see if this is true.)
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3. Carboxylic Acids:
Functional Group: -COOH Name ends in “-oic acid”.
Examples:
Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid
Uses: Methanoic acid is found in ant and nettle stings.
Ethanoic acid is used as a flavouring agent in vinegar. Also used to make cellulose acetate (camera film).
Propanoic acid, Benzoic acid (and its salt, Sodium Benzoate) are used as preservatives in food.
Carbonyl Group: The highly polar C=O carbonyl group is always located at the end of the carbon chain in a
carboxylic acid.
The polar O-H bond located off the carbonyl group in carboxylic acids means that carboxylic acid molecules have
Hydrogen Bonding intermolecular forces.
1. Boiling points of carboxylic acids are higher than their respective alkanes, aldehydes, alcohols and ketones due
to the relatively strong hydrogen bonds between the carboxylic acid molecules being stronger than the weaker
Van-der-Waals and Dipole-Dipole forces between the other respective molecules.
Small carboxylic acid molecules are soluble in water due to the Hydrogen Bonding. The longer the carbon chain
becomes, the less soluble the carboxylic acid is in water, as the effect of the polar -OH group decreases.
4. Esters:
Functional Group: -COOC- Name ends in “-yl -oate”.
Examples:
Methyl Ethanoate Ethyl Methanoate
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Formation: Esters are formed by reacting an alcohol with a carboxylic acid, with sulphuric acid being used as a
catalyst. This reaction is called a condensation reaction because it results in the loss of a water molecule.
Naming:
1. Divide the structure by identifying the part derived from the carboxylic acid (seen in purple, above), and the
part derived from the alcohol (seen in green, above)
2. Name the alcohol-derived section first e.g. methyl, ethyl, propyl, etc.
3. Identify the carboxylic acid which the purple sections are derived from. Remove “-oic acid” from the name and
replace it with “-oate” e.g. “ethanoic acid” becomes “ethanoate”
4. Combine the name from step 2 with the name from step 3. (always in the order “-yl –oate”, NEVER “-oate –yl”)
Uses: Used as flavourings and fragrances as they have sweet, fruity scents.
Fats and oils are naturally occurring esters.
The polar carbonyl group (C=O) means that ester molecules have Dipole-Dipole intermolecular forces.
Small ester molecules are soluble in water due to the Dipole-Dipole intermolecular forces. The longer the carbon chain
becomes, the less soluble the ester is in water, as the effect of the polar C=O group decreases. Fats and oils are large
esters and are insoluble in water.
5. Aromatic Compounds:
Structure: Contains a Benzene Ring.
Examples:
Methylbenzene Ethylbenzene
Structure/Bonding in Benzene: 4 valence electrons on each carbon in the benzene ring. 3 of these electrons are
used to form sigma bonds with the 2 carbon atoms on either side and the H atom. Each remaining valence electron
(6 in total) is shared between all 6 carbons. This is a very stable structure and is represented as a ring in the
structural formula. Evidence for this is that the bond lengths between all carbon atoms is identical. (Structure is
NOT alternating single and double bonds).
Organic Natural Products: Many compounds made in nature contain benzene rings. Examples are:
Cocaine Paracetamol Eugenol (Clove Oil)

(Lab Made) (Lab Made) (Natural)
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Name:
Organic Chemistry Objectives

22. Types of Reactions in Addition Reactions
Organic Chemistry -explain what is meant by an addition reaction
-write balanced equations using structural formula for the reactions of the alkenes with
hydrogen, chlorine, bromine, water and hydrogen chloride
-outline the industrial importance of:
• products of the addition reactions of ethene with chlorine, bromine, water and
hydrogen chloride
• hydrogenation of vegetable oils
-describe the mechanisms of ionic addition (addition of HCl, Br2, Cl2, only to ethene)
-describe the evidence for this mechanism as: the reaction of ethene with bromine
water containing sodium chloride results in the formation of 2-bromoethanol 1-
bromo-2-chloroethane and 1,2-dibromoethane
-explain what is meant by addition polymerisation
-outline the polymerisation reaction of ethane and propene (reaction mechanism not
required).
-account for the unreactivity of benzene with regard to addition reactions relative to
ethene
-account for the use of alkenes as raw materials in the industrial manufacture of
plastics
-outline the range and scope of the petrochemical industry
-list two synthetic products of the petrochemical industry (structures not required
unless specified elsewhere on the syllabus)
Substitution Reaction
-define substitution reaction
-recognise halogenation of alkanes as a substitution reaction
-write balanced equations using structural formula for the halogenations of alkanes
-describe the mechanism of free radical substitution (monochlorination of methane
and ethane only)
-discuss the evidence for the mechanism of free radical substitution
• use of ultraviolet light even for a very short period causes a chain reaction
• formation of trace quantities of ethane and butane in the monochlorination
of methane and ethane, respectively
• these reactions are speeded up by the addition of a known source of free
radicals, such as tetraethyllead
-explain what is meant by esterification
-explain what is meant by base hydrolysis of esters
-write balanced equations using structural formulas to illustrate base hydrolysis of
esters
-prepare a sample of soap (structures of reactants and products required)
-discuss the manufacture of soap (structures of reactants and products required)
Elimination Reactions
-explain what is meant by an elimination reaction
-explain what is meant by a dehydration reaction
write balanced equations using structural formula for the dehydration of alcohols
Redox Reactions
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-write balanced half equations using structural formula for the oxidation (using KMnO4
or Na2Cr2O7) of:
• alcohols to(i) aldehydes and (ii) acids
• aldehydes to acids
-carry out calculations involving percentage yield of ethanal (the balanced equation
will be given)
-demonstrate the properties of ethanal (limited to reactions with (i) acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution, (ii) Fehling’s reagent and (iii) ammoniacal silver nitrate)
-relate the production of ethanal to the metabolism of ethanol in the human body
-carry out calculations involving percentage yield of ethanoic acid (the balanced
equation will be given)
-carry out diagnostic tests on ethanoic acid (limited to reactions with sodium
carbonate, magnesium and ethanol)
-account for the lower susceptibility of ketones than aldehydes to oxidation
-write balanced equations using structural formulas for the reduction of carbonyl
compounds using a H2/Ni catalyst
-recall that combustion is a reaction common to most organic compounds
-recall that the fully halogenated alkanes are non-flammable, relate this property to
their use in flame retardants and fire extinguishers
-oxidise phenylmethanol (benzyl alcohol) to benzoic acid using potassium
permanganate under basic conditions.
-recall that benzaldehyde is a constituent of almond kernels (structure of benzaldehyde
not required)
-purify a sample of benzoic acid by recrystallisation outline the use of melting point to
confirm purity determine the melting point of benzoic acid
Reactions as acids
-write balanced equations using structural formulas for the reactions of alcohols with
sodium
-account for the acidic nature of the carboxylic acid group
-write balanced equations using structural formulas for the reactions of carboxylic acids
with magnesium, with sodium hydroxide and with sodium carbonate
Organic synthesis: principles and examples

-recall that chemical synthesis involves (i) bond breaking and (ii) bond forming
-describe the organic synthesis of PVC from ethene (structures and synthetic route not
required)
-work out reaction schemes of up to three conversions recalling familiar reactions
ADDITION REACTIONS
Defn: An addition reaction is one in which two substances react to form a single substance.
General Notes on addn reactions:
1. Always will occur on a double/triple bond.

2. Geometry will change from planar (unsaturated C-C bonds) to tetrahedral (saturated C-C bonds).
3. Benzene does not undergo addition reactions as its delocalised electrons make it very stable and unreactive.
Uses of addn reactions:
1. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils. Forms margarine. H2 (with Ni catalyst) added to unsaturated oils to partially
saturate them. This is also a reduction reaction as we are adding hydrogen.
2. Polymerisation reactions to make long chains of carbons we call plastics.
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G. Galvin
Ethene is often seen as the most important organic chemical, as it undergoes many addition reactions to form
different organic compounds. Example we need to know are:
The last example, called the Bromination of Ethene needs to be study in more detail. We need to know the mechanism
of the reaction: Overall this type of reaction is known as Ionic Addition.
Defn: The mechanism of a reaction is the detailed step-by-step description of how the reaction occurs.
Step 1: Polarisation
The C=C double bond in ethane has a high concentration of negative
charge.
As the Br2 approaches the ethene, the electrons are repelled away from the
ethene, polarising the Br2.
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G. Galvin
Step 2: Heterolytic Fission:

The polarisation eventually becomes so great, the molecule splits into Br-
and Br+. We call this heterolytic fission because the Br- took all 2
electrons from the Br-Br bond.
Step 3: Carbonium Ion Formation:

The Br+ attacks the electron rich C=C double bond. This forms a
carbonium ion (positive charge on C)
Step 4: Ionic Attack

The Br- ion attacks the carbonium ion, forming
1,2-dibromoethane.
Evidence for this mechanism:

If this reaction is carried out in bromine water with some Cl- ions added, we see the normal 1,2-dibromoethane product
being formed, but two other products form also; 1-bromo-2-chloroethane and 2-bromoethanol. These form because of
the Cl- or the OH- (from water’s self-ionisation) can replace the Br- in step 4.
TO WRITE THE MECHANISM FOR THE ADDITION OF CL2 OR HCL, SIMPLY REPLACE THE BR2!
Polymerisation reactions are also a type of addition reaction.
Defn: Polymers are long chain molecules made by joining many small molecules (monomers).
Polymers are made up of many repeating units.
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G. Galvin
ELIMINATION REACTIONS
Defn: An elimination reaction is one in which a small molecule is removed from a larger molecule, leaving a double
bond on the larger molecule.
General Notes on elimn reactions:
1. Geometry changes from tetrahedral to planar as a double bond is formed.

2. Generally involved the removal of a water molecule (H2O) – these are also called dehydration reactions.
This example is the reaction you carried out when producing ethene
gas. Notice that water is removed from the ethanol.
Know that Al2O3 and heat is used to remove water in a dehydration
reaction.
SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS
Defn: A substitution reaction is one in which an atom (or group of atoms) in a molecule is replaced with another atom
(or group of atoms).
There are 2 main types we study:
1. Halogenation of Alkanes
This involves substituting hydrogen atoms in alkanes with halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, etc.).
Fully halogenated alkanes e.g. CCl4 are used as flame retardants. Less common now as they damage the ozone layer.
We need to know the overall reaction, and the detailed mechanism for the monochlorination of methane/ethane.
The mechanism for the monochlorination of methane is shown below.
This mechanism is called free-radical substitution.
Step 1: Homolytic Fission
UV light is used to break the Cl-Cl bond. Each Cl atom receives 1 of the 2
electrons from the bond. This forms 2 Cl radicals which are very reactive.
Step 2: Propogation
One of the Cl radicals attacks the methane molecule to form HCl and a
methyl radical.
Step 3: Propogation
The methyl radical attacks a new Cl2 molecule to form a molecule of
chloromethane and a Cl radical.
The Cl radical now undergoes Step 2 again, and this forms a chain
reaction between Steps 2 and 3.
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G. Galvin
Step 4: Termination
When most of the reactants have been used up during Steps 2 and 3, there are
only a small number of Cl radicals and methyl radicals left over. These combine
to form Cl2, chloromethane and ethane.
Note: The mechanism for the monochlorination of ethane is identical. Practice

writing it out. The italics shown in the table below refer to the evidence for the
monochlorination of ethane.
Evidence for this mechanism:
Evidence Explanation
Reaction takes place when exposed to UV light Suggests a free-radical mechanism whereby Cl2 is broken
down into Cl radicals.
For every photon of UV light used, thousands of Suggests a chain reaction is involved.
chloromethane molecules are formed
Ethane is found in the products (butane) Methyl (ethyl) radicals must have been present, as ethane
(butane) forms when two methyl radicals combine.
Adding tetramethyllead (tetraethyllead), which is a Only a reaction which uses free radicals would be sped
source of free radicals, increases the rate of the reaction up by adding free radicals.
Addition of an inhibitor, like O2, slows down the reaction Shows a chain reaction is taking place, as O2 combines
with free radicals, stopping the chain reaction.
2. Esterification
When a carboxylic acid is reacted with an alcohol (with a small amount of H2SO4 as a catalyst), an ester is formed. This
is a substitution reaction as the H on the –OH of the carboxylic acid has been substituted with an alkyl (methyl-, ethyl-,
etc.) group.
Notice that this is an equilibrium reaction. This means that the reverse reaction can also occur. To do this, we simply
need to add water. This is called hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis of esters can also be carried out using a base e.g. NaOH or KOH. This results in the formation of the
sodium/potassium salt of the carboxylic acid. These salts are known to us as soaps. This process of base hydrolysis is
also called saponification. You carried out this reaction when you prepared a sample of soap:
How does soap work?
Soap molecules contain a long, non-polar carbon chain which
will dissolve oils (e.g. from skin). The opposite end of the
molecule contains a polar COO- Na+ which will dissolve salts
from sweat and will also dissolve in water. This allows soap to
pick up oils and salts and then be washed down the drain.
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G. Galvin
REDOX REACTIONS
General Notes on redox reactions:
1. Oxidation is the addition of O or the removal of H.

2. Reduction is the removal of O or the addition of H
3. Oxidation carried out using either:
a. Acidified Sodium Dichromate (Na2Cr2O7/H+) Cr(VI) [orange] gets reduced to Cr(III) [green].
b. Acidified Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4/H+) Mn(VII) [purple] gets reduced to Mn(II) [colourless].
4. Reduction is carried out using Hydrogen gas and a Nickel catalyst (H2/Ni)
Primary Alcohols
Primary alcohols get oxidised to aldehydes. If there is excess oxidising agent present, the aldehydes can then be
further oxidised to carboxylic acids.
Carboxylic acids get reduced to aldehydes. If there is excess reducing agent, the aldehydes can be further reduced to
alcohols.
Note that all of the changes happen at the terminal carbon (the carbon at the end), where the oxygen atom was.
Secondary Alcohols
Secondary alcohols get oxidised to ketones. They cannot be oxidised any further. This is because the carbon with the
oxygen is not at the end of the molecule. Thus we form a ketone rather than an aldehyde. As carboxylic acids can only
have the COOH on the terminal carbon, a ketone can never be oxidised to a carboxylic acid.
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G. Galvin
Ketones get reduced to secondary alcohols.
Organic Redox reactions in everyday life

1. A bottle of wine left open to the air will start to taste “vinegary” after some time. This is because oxygen in the
air oxidises the ethanol in the wine to ethanoic acid.
2. When ethanol is consumed, the liver works hard to break it down, as it is a foreign toxin to the body. The liver
oxidises the ethanol to ethanal, which is even more toxic! The ethanal is what causes some of the bad symptoms
of a hangover. Eventually, when given enough time, the ethanal is further oxidised by the liver to carbon
dioxide and water, which are excreted through the lungs and urine.
3. Old-style breathalysers (these can still be bought in your local pharmacy!) contained potassium dichromate
crystals [Cr(VI) - orange]. If alcohol was in a person’s system and they breathed through a tube containing the
crystals, the ethanol in the breath would be oxidised. This would reduce the Cr(VI) [orange] to Cr(III) [green],
showing that ethanol was present.
REACTIONS AS ACIDS
Alcohols reacting with Sodium
The H on the –OH of an alcohol can act as an acid when reacted with the extremely reactive metal, sodium. This forms
the sodium salt of the alcohol, and hydrogen gas.
H H H H
– +
H C C O + Na H C C O Na + 0.5 H2
H H H H H
Ethanol Sodium Ethoxide
The Acidic nature of the Carboxylic Acids
Why is the H on the –COOH group acidic (why can it dissociate)? There are 2 reasons:
1. Inductive effect
Because the O in the C=O is very electronegative, the C is left with a
slight positive charge. This draws electron density towards the C and
away from the –OH, allowing the H to dissociate.
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G. Galvin
2. Stability of the carboxylate ion

When the H of the –OH dissociates to form a H+ we are left with a carboxylate ion –
COO-. The negative charge is not localised to just one of the oxygens and is instead
delocalised between the two of them. This delocalised structure gives the carboxylate
ion extra stability, allowing the H+ to easily dissociate.
Common reactions with carboxylic acids:

1. Acid + Base  Salt + Water
e.g. CH3COOH + NaOH  CH3COONa + H2O
2. Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3  2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
3. Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen

2CH3COOH + Mg  (CH3COO)2Mg  H2
SYNTHESIS OF PVC FROM ETHENE
Step 1:
Ethene and chlorine react to form 1,2-dichloroethane.
(Addition reaction of which we know the mechanism)
Step 2:
Heat is used to thermally crack the
1,2-dichloroethane into chloroethene and HCl.
Step 3:
The chloroethene undergoes a polymerisation
reaction to form polychloroethene (PVC)
Page 9 of 9
G. Galvin
Instrumentation HL
Name:
Instrumentation Objectives
-describe how a mass spectrometer can be used to determine relative atomic mass
-describe the principles on which the Mass Spectrometer is based
-explain the fundamental processes that occur in a mass spectrometer
-describe chromatography as a separation technique in which a mobile phase carrying a
mixture is caused to move in contact with a selectively absorbent stationary phase
-separate a mixture of indicators using paper chromatography or thin-layer
chromatography or column chromatography
-describe the use of thin-layer chromatography (TLC) in the separation of dyes taken
from fibres in forensic work
-describe GC and HPLC as more advanced separation techniques
-give examples of instrumental methods of separation or analysis referring
briefly to the principles involved in each case for the following:
• mass spectrometry- analysis of gases from a waste dump, trace organic pollutants in
water
• gas chromatography (GC)- drug tests on athletes, blood alcohol tests
• high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)- growth-promoters in meat,
vitamins in foods
• infra-red absorption spectrometry (IR)- identification of organic compounds, e.g.
plastics and drugs
• ultraviolet absorption spectrometry- quantitative determination of organic
compounds (e.g. drug metabolites, plant pigments)
-Brief reference to the principles of each method. interpretation of spectra etc. not
required (It should be noted that these techniques are applicable not only to organic
chemistry but also to many other areas of chemistry)
MASS SPECTROMETRY:
Defn: The Principle of Mass Spectrometry is that charged particles moving in a magnetic field are deflected by
different amount due to their masses. This separates the particles according to their masses.
Stages in Mass Spectrometry: (Need to learn the names)
1. Vaporisation: The sample material is vaporised into a gas.
2. Ionisation: An electron gun fires high-energy electrons at the gaseous sample. This knocks electrons off the
sample particles, leaving the sample as a group of positively charged ions.
3. Acceleration: A negatively charged plate attracts the positive ions. This accelerates the particles so that they
travel at high speed through the spectrometer.
4. Separation: A magnetic field of a particular strength is used to deflect the particles. Particles that are too light
are deflected too much and hit the side of the spectrometer. Particles that are too heavy are not deflected
enough and hit the side of the spectrometer. Only particles that have a certain mass are deflected by just the
right amount and make it through the spectrometer to the detector.
5. Detection: A detector senses the number of positive ions hitting it and displays the result on a mass spectrum.
Page 1 of 4
G. Galvin
Instrumentation HL
The peaks shown in the mass spectrum have units of mass

on the horizontal axis. The height of each peak represents
the relative abundance of particles of that mass. E.g. the
peak at 43 is roughly 4x higher than the peak at 72. This
means there are 4x as many particles of mass 43 as there
are of mass 72.
Uses: Analysis of gases in waste dumps, identification of

organic pollutants in water, extraterristrial rock
composition.
CHROMATOGRAPHY:
Defn: Chromatography is a separation technique in which a mobile phase carrying a mixture moves in contact with
a selectively adsorbant stationary phase.
Paper Chromatography: (need to know this in detail, with diagram. TLC and column chromatography don’t
need as much detail, or a diagram)
Stationary Phase: Chromatography paper Mobile Phase: Water (or other solvent)
1. Spot of sample mixture is placed areound 1cm above the

water line.
2. The mobile phase soaks up through the stationary phase
and dissolves the materials in the mixture.
3. Each material dissolves to a different extent.
4. Less soluble materials will appear as a spot closer to the
bottom of the paper.
5. More soluble materials will appear as a spot higher up the
paper.
6. This separates the components in the mixture.
Uses: Separating dyes in ink/food colouring/indicators.
Thin Layer Chromatrography (TLC):

Stationary Phase: Silica Gel Plates Mobile Phase: Methanol (or other organic solvent)
Uses: Test drug purity, Separate colours in clothes dyes in forensic science.
Page 2 of 4
G. Galvin
Instrumentation HL
Column Chromatography:
Stationary Phase: Silica Gel in glass tube Mobile Phase: Water/Ethanol (or other appropriate solvent)
Uses: Separate dyes in food colouring.
Passing a solvent through a tube/column is called elution. The word for the solvent used is the eluent.
Gas Chromatography (GC):
Stationary Phase: Long coiled column filled with coated silica gel. Mobile Phase: Inert carrier gas (N2)
Defn: The Principle of Gas Chromatography is that a mixture of
components is carried by a gaseous mobile phase is separated based on
their different interactions with a solid stationary phase and the
gaseous mobile phase.
Uses: Alcohol levels in urine samples, drug testing in athletes.
GC-MS: Gas Chromatography is often used with Mass Spectroscopy.
After separation by GC, each component is put through a Mass
Spectrometer to identify each component.
High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC):

Stationary Phase: Coated Silica Gel Mobile Phase: Suitable liquid solvent (ethanol) under high pressure
The pump supplies the high pressure needed for the mobile
phase. The reason the mobile phase needs high pressure is
that the column is packed very tightly and the elution
would take too long if the pump wasn’t used.
Uses: Test for growth hormones/additives/vitamins in
food, caffeine in soft drinks etc.
SPECTROSCOPY:
Infra-red Spectroscopy (IR):
Organic compounds absorb infrared-radiation. Different frequencies
of IR light are absorbed by different types of bonds. So a C=O
would absorb a different frequency of IR then an O-H or a C=C
bond. By looking at how an organic compound absorbs IR light, we
get an IR spectrum, which is used as a “fingerprint” for that
compound.
Uses: Identifying plastics, illegal drugs. Used to back up breathalyser results.
Page 3 of 4
G. Galvin
Instrumentation HL
Ultraviolet Spectroscopy (UV):

This instrument measures how a compounds absorbs UV light of
different wavelengths/frequencies. Like IR spectroscopy, this also
results in a “fingerprint” for each compound. However, unlike IR,
UV spectroscopy can also measure the concentration of the
compound, making this a quantitative analysis.
UV spectroscopy is commonly used with HPLC in order to identify
each compound in a mixture, and their concentrations.
Uses: Drug concentrations in blood/cells, plant pigments in plant
cells etc.
Page 4 of 4
G. Galvin

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Atomic

Periodic Table and Objectives

6. J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model:

This model of the atom was proven to be wrong with Rutherford’s

Properties of Subatomic Particles:

Periodic Table and Objectives

Bohr’s Study of Spectra

1. In the ground state the electron occupies

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

1. White light is passed through a gaseous sample of an element.

Every energy level (except n=1) consists of a number of sublevels.

Wave Nature of the Electron:

Limitations of Bohr’s Theory:

d Not needed 5 Not needed 2 10

Periodic Table and Objectives

History of the Periodic Table:

Mass Numbers and Isotopes:

No. of neutrons in an atom = Mass Number (A) – Atomic Number (Z)

To calculate the relative atomic mass of an element:

18.7 of them have a mass of 10: 18.7 x 10 = 187

81.3 of them have a mass of 11: 81.3 x 11 = 894.3

Electron Configuration of Atoms:

3 Energy levels occupied ( n=1, n=2, n=3: the BIG numbers)

2. Write the (s, p, etc.) electron configuration of O-

Solution : 1s2, 2s2, 2px2, 2py2, 2pz1

2 Energy levels occupied

Solution: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d3

4. Write the (s, p, etc.) electron configuration of Cr:

Cr: 24 e- (this is an important number as it is an exception – so is 29 e-)

Chemical Bonding Objectives

Balancing Chemical Equations:

Left Hand Side Right Hand Side

2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + Fe

Left Hand Side Right Hand Side

2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe

Left Hand Side Right Hand Side

Our balanced equation is:

2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe

Anion Test Observation Reason

Hydrogencarbonate 2. To distinguish: Add 2. White precipitate forms

Chemical Bonding Objectives

Exceptions to the octet rule:

Defn: An ion is a charged atom or group of atoms.

These positive ions are called cations.

These negative ions are called anions.

To show the ionic bonding in a compound, use a dot-and-cross diagram:

Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride:

The three-dimensional arrangement of ions is called a crystal

Each chloride ion is surrounded by 6 sodium ions.

Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds:

Al is in Group III, so it forms a +3 ion. O is in Group VI so it forms a -2 ion.

So we need 2 Al3+ and we need 3 O2-.

Our formula is Al2O3.

Name Formula Charge

Calcium is in Group II, so it forms a +2 ion. Hydrogencarbonate is a -1 complex ion.

Our formula is Ca(HCO3)2.

Ionic bonding with the Transition Metals:

So we need only one Fe2+ and only one CO32-.

Our formula is FeCO3

SO4 is the sulphate ion, which has a charge of -2.

We have three sulphate ions so the total negative charge is -6.

So the name of our compound is Chromium (III) Sulphate.

We can show covalent bonding using dot-and-cross diagrams: