Chapter 3

Atomic Structure
The Development of the Atomic Model
 Objectives:
 I can explain how the idea of the atom originated
 I can list the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory
 I can discuss how atomic structure is related to
electricity.
 I can explain what has been revealed about atoms by
various experimentation done by various scientists.
 I can define radioactivity and distinguish among the
three types of nuclear radiation
Early Atomic Theory
Democritus

about 460 BC – about 370 BC

 Early Atomic Theory
Democritus
 Greek Philosopher
 Proposed another atomic theory around 400 BC
 All matter is composed of atomos (uncutable
material) (a – not, tomos – to cut)
 Atoms of the same element are the same
 Atoms of different elements were different
 Characteristics of a substance were determined
by the shape of its atoms
 Atoms remained unchanged but combined with
other atoms to form objects
Early Atomic Theory
Aristotle

384 BC – 322 BC
 Early Atomic Theory
Aristotle
 Greek Philosopher
 Proposed an atomic theory
 All matter consisted of four elements:
earth, air, water & fire
 Theory believed for almost 2000 years
 Foundations of Atomic Theory
 Improvements in balances allowed
investigators to quantitatively analyze
chemical reactions
 This lead to the discovery of several basic
laws:
– The law of conservation of mass
– The law of definite proportions
– The law of multiple proportions

– ***Difference between opinion and

theory???
 The Law of Conservation of
Mass
 Mass is neither created or destroyed during
ordinary chemical reactions or physical
changes
 Law of Definite Proportions
 Followed by the discovery of the law of
conservation of mass
 A chemical compound contains the same
elements in exactly the same proportions by
mass regardless of the size of the sample or
source of the compound
 NaCl is always 39.34% sodium, and
60.66% chlorine.
 Law of Multiple Proportions
 If two or more different compounds are
composed of the same two elements, then
the ratio of the masses of the second
element combined with a certain mass of
the first element is always a ratio of small
whole numbers
Law of Multiple Proportions
Early Atomic Theory
John Dalton

1766 – 1844
 Early Atomic Theory
John Dalton
 English schoolteacher
 Proposed an atomic theory in 1808
1. All matter is made up of atoms
2. All atoms of the same element are identical
3. Atoms can not be subdivided, created, or
destroyed.
4. A given compound always has the same
relative numbers and kinds of atoms
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined,
separated, and rearranged.
 Problems with Dalton’s Theory
 Not all aspects of Dalton’s atomic theory have
proven to be correct. We now know that:
• Atoms are divisible into even smaller particles.
• A given element can have atoms with different
masses.
 Some important concepts remain unchanged.
• All matter is composed of atoms.
• Atoms of any one element differ in properties
from atoms of another element.
J. J. Thomson

1856 - 1940
 J. J. Thomson
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) experiments in 1896
Cathode Ray Tube has:
 Negatively charged electrode called a cathode
 Positively charged electrode called an anode
 A glass tube which contains a gas at low
pressure
 Thomson’s Experiment
Voltage Source
- +
 Thomson’s Experiment
Voltage Source
- +
 Thomson’s Experiment
Voltage Source
- +

 Passing an electric current made the anode glow.

This glow was caused by a stream of particles
which moved from the negative to the positive end.
 Thomson’s Experiment
Voltage Source

-
 By adding a magnetic field, he found that the moving
pieces were negative because they were deflected
from the magnetic field.
 J. J. Thomson
 J. J. Thomson called the negatively charged
particles “electrons”
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

 Thomson assumed
all of the negative
charged particles
were in a sphere of
positive charge
 J. J. Thomson
 2 inferences about atomic structure (based on the
cathode ray experiment)
 Because atoms are neutrally charged, they must
contain a positive charge to balance the
negatively charged electrons
 Because electrons have so much less mass than
atoms, atoms must contain other particles that
account for most of their mass
Robert Millikan

1868 - 1953
 Robert Millikan
 Oil Drop experiment in 1909
 Determined the charge and mass of an electron
Oil Drop Experiment

Two new inferences could be made based on the

discovery of the electron:
1. Because atoms are electrically neutral, they
must contain a positive charge to balance the
negative electrons
2. Because electrons have so much less mass
than atoms, atoms must contain other particles
that account for most of their mass.
Ernest Rutherford

1871 - 1937
 Ernest Rutherford
Radiation Analysis
 A radioactive substance is placed in a shield
containing a small hole so that a beam of radiation
is emitted from the hole.
 The radiation is passed between two electrically
charged plates and detected.
 Three spots are noted on the detector:
 a spot in the direction of the positive plate,
 a spot which is not affected by the electric field,
 a spot in the direction of the negative plate.
 Ernest Rutherford

Radiation Experiment
 Ernest Rutherford
 A high deflection towards the positive plate
corresponds to radiation which is negatively
charged and of low mass. This is called -
radiation (consists of electrons).
 No deflection corresponds to neutral radiation
similar to X-rays. This is called -radiation.
 Small deflection towards the negatively charged
plate corresponds to high mass, positively charged
radiation (2+ charge). This is called -radiation.
 Ernest Rutherford
Gold Foil Experiment
 A source of -particles was placed at the mouth of
a circular detector.
 The -particles were shot through a piece of gold
foil.
 Most of the  -particles went straight through the
foil without deflection.
 Some  -particles were deflected at high angles.
 If the Thomson model of the atom was correct,
then Rutherford’s result was impossible.
Gold Foil Experiment
 Ernest Rutherford
 In order to get the majority of -particles
through a piece of foil to be undeflected, the
majority of the atom must consist of a low
mass, diffuse negative charge - the electron.
 To account for the small number of high
deflections of the -particles, the center of
the atom must consist of a dense positive
charge.
 Rutherford called the center of the atom the
nucleus
Ernest Rutherford
 Rutherford modified
Thomson’s model as
follows:
 assume the atom is
spherical but the
positive charge
must be located at
the center, with a
diffuse negative
charge surrounding
it.
 Size of Atoms
 Rutherford discovered that the volume of
the nucleus was very small compared to the
total volume of the atom
 If the nucleus were the size of a marble, the
entire atoms would be about the size of a
football field
 Where were the electrons?
 Rutherford’s student, Niels Bohr will later
propose a model for this.
Bohr’s Planetary Model of the Atom
 The Bohr Model
 In 1913, the Danish
scientist Niels Bohr
proposed an
improvement. In
his model, he
placed each
electron in a
specific energy
level.
The Bohr Model
 According to Bohr’s
atomic model, electrons
move in definite orbits
around the nucleus,
much like planets circle
the sun. These orbits, or
energy levels, are
located at certain
distances from the
nucleus.
 Henry Moseley
Discovered Protons

The number of
protons are in order
on the periodic
table.

1920
James Chadwick

1930
 James Chadwick
 Bombarded beryllium with alpha particles
 Found that highly energetic, uncharged
particles were emitted
 These particles had a mass only slightly
larger than a proton
 This was the discovery of neutrons
 Nuclear Atom
MASS MASS CHARGE CHARGE
Grams Coulombs

Proton 1.67 x 10-24 1 1.6 x 10-19 +1

p+
Neutron 1.67 x 10-24 1 0 0

Electron 9.1 x 10-28 0 -1.6 x 10-19 -1
e
 Chapter 3
Atomic Structure
3-3 Modern Atomic Theory
 Objectives:
 I can name and describe the subatomic particles of the atom
 I can explain how to determine the number of protons,
neutrons and electrons in an atom
 I can explain how an ion differs from an atom
 I can explain how isotopes of the same element differ
 I can write chemical symbols
 I can explain the relationship between atomic mass and the
relative abundance of isotopes
 I can calculate the average atomic mass or percent abundance
of an isotope
 The Structure of the Atom
 2 regions of the atom
 Nucleus accounts for most of the mass
 Protons
 Neutrons
 Electron Cloud accounts for most of the
volume
 Electrons
 Fundamental Subatomic Particles

Charge Relative Mass

Particle Mass (g)
(C) Charge (amu)
1.673 x 10-24
Proton +1.602 x 10-19 +1 1.0073 ≈ 1
1.675 x 10 -24
Neutron 0 0 1.0087 ≈ 1
9.109 x 10 -28
Electron -1.602 x 10-19 -1 0.0006 ≈ 0

1 amu = 1.660540 x 10-27 kg

 Atomic Numbers
 Discovered by Henry Moseley
 Identifies an atom
 # of protons
 Written above the element
symbol in the periodic
table
 Neutral atoms
 protons = electrons
 Target Check
How many protons and electrons are present in the
following atoms?

 O
 8 protons & 8 electrons
Mg
12 protons & 12 electrons
S

16 protons & 16 electrons

 Target Check
What is the name of the element that has
atoms that contain 11 protons?
 Sodium
 Ions
 A neutral atom can gain or lose electrons
 The number of protons and electrons is not equal
 Protons > electrons = + charge
 Electrons > protons = − charge
 The charge is written to the top right of the
element symbol
 Example
 Magnesium loses 2 electrons to have 12
protons and 10 electrons. What is the symbol
of the ion?
 Mg2+
 Target Check
Write the symbol for the ion with 9 protons
and 10 electrons.
 F1-
What is the symbol for the ion with 13
protons and 10 electrons?
 Al3+
What is the symbol for the ion with 7 protons
and 10 electrons?
 N3-
 Target Check
How many protons and electrons are present
in the S2- ion?
 16 protons and 18 electrons

How many protons and electrons are present

in the Li+ ion?
 3 protons and 2 electrons
 Isotopes
 Atoms that have the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons
 Chemical properties are the same
 Mass differs between isotopes due to the
different number of neutrons
 Mass Number (Z)
 Mass number = # protons + # neutrons
 Used to distinguish isotopes
 Hyphen notation
 element name – Z
 chlorine – 37
 hydrogen – 2
 Chemical Symbol

Mass Number
Z
A
X Element
Symbol

Atomic Number
 Target Check
How many protons, neutrons and electrons
are present in each of the following:

56 2 27 3 79 2
26 Fe 13 Al 34 Se
p+ = 26 p+ = 13 p+ = 34
no = 30 no = 14 no = 45
e− = 24 e− = 10 e− = 36
 Target Check
Write the chemical symbol for the following:
 21 protons, 24 neutrons, 18 electrons

45 3
21 Sc
 53 protons, 74 neutrons, 54 electrons

127 
53 I
 Atomic Mass
 The weighted average mass of an elements
naturally occurring isotopes
 Written below the element symbol on the periodic
table
 Measured in a.m.u. (atomic mass units)
 A.m.u. roughly equal to the mass of a proton or
neutron
 Defined as 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom
 Atomic mass ≠ mass number
 Calculating Atomic Mass
 Atomic mass = % abundance (isotope mass)
+ % abundance (isotope mass) + …..
 Example

 Naturally occurring copper consists of

69.15% copper-63 (62.929601 amu) and
30.85% copper-65 (64.927794 amu).
What is the average atomic mass of
copper?
0.6915 (62.929601 amu) + 0.3085 (64.927794) =
63.55 amu
The Mole
 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 grams
 1 C-12 atom = 12 amu
 (12)(1.66 x 10-24 g) = 1.992 x 10-23 g
 1.992 x 10-23 grams is the mass of one
carbon-12 atom
 But … we do not work with single
atoms or with gram values this small
 We need reasonable numbers to work
with in the laboratory
 The Mole
 The mole is a number…..
 A HUGE number……
 But still just a number…..
 A mole is a collection of
6.02 x 1023 particles
602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
These particles may be atoms, molecules,
ions, or electrons
1 dozen = 12
1 gross = 144
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023
Just how large is this number?
602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
It is really hard to relate to a number
this large ……….but let’s try and see
if we can make sense the enormity of
the number.
If all 5 billion people on Earth were to do
nothing but count the atoms in 1 mole of
an element, 24 hours a day, at the rate of
1 atom per second…….
It would
take 4
million
years !!
1 mole of seconds represents a
span of time…..
4 million times as long as the Earth
has already existed !!
1 mole of marbles is
enough marbles to cover
the entire Earth…
to a depth of
50 miles
1 mole of rice grains
has a mass equal to….
each of the 5 billion people on
earth having 1 million cars each
A mole of dollars ??
How many years would it take
you to spend 1 mole of
dollars, if you spend at a rate
of $1 billion per second ?

$ 6.02 x 1023 = ? Years

 Using unit analysis:

$6.02x1023 1sec 1min 1hr 1day 1 yr

$1x109 60sec 60min 24hr 365day

= 19,089,294.77 years

over 19 million years!!!

And yet there is 1 mole of water
molecules – 6.022 x 1023 molecules
of water in only 18 mL of water !!
 Why is this number so special?
 The mole is defined as the number of
atoms of 12C in exactly 12.000 grams
of pure 12C
 There are exactly 1 mole of atoms in
the atomic mass of an element when
that mass is expressed in grams
 Avogadro’s Number
 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023particles
 1 mole = Avogadro’s number
 1 mole = the atomic mass of an
element expressed in grams
What is the mass of 1
mole of carbon ?
12.011 grams
How many atoms?
6.022 x 1023 atoms
What is the mass of ½
mole of carbon ?
6.0055 grams
12.011 grams
of carbon
contains the
same # of
atoms as 1
mole of carbon
 Molar Mass:
The mass of 1 mole of a
substance in grams
The substance can be a
compound or an element
**A compound’s molar mass is
numerically equal to its formula
mass.
Molar Mass of a Compound
H2O
2 H = 2 x 1.008 = 2.016 g
1 O = 1 x 16.00 = 16.00 g
16.00 g + 2.016 g = 18.016 g

molar mass of water = 18.02 grams

Calculate the molar masses:
HCl 36.46 g
CO2 44.01 g
Mg3(PO4)2 262.87 g
C12H22O11 342.30 g
Mg(OH)2 58.33 g
 Mole Conversions
 The molar mass of a compound can be used
as a conversion factor to relate an amount in
moles to a mass in grams for a given
substance.
 To convert moles to grams, multiply the
amount in moles by the molar mass:

Amount in moles × molar mass (g/mol)

= mass in grams
 Moles to Mass

Molar mass
Moles of Mass of
substance substance
of substance
 Converting grams to moles:
 A chemist has a jar containing 388.2 g of iron
filings. How many moles of iron does the jar
contain?
 Solution:
 What is given in the problem?

 What are you asked to find?

 Plan:
 Convert grams of Fe to moles of Fe
 Compute:

 Check:
 Are the units correct (moles)?
 Is the number of significant figures correct?
 Practice problems:
 Calculate the number of moles in each of the
following masses:
– 64.1 g of aluminum

– 28.1 g of silicon

– 0.255 g of sulfur

– 850.5 g of zinc
 Converting moles to grams:

 A student needs 0.366 mol of zinc for a

reaction. What mass of zinc in grams
should the student obtain?
 Plan:
 What is given?
 What are you asked to find?
 Compute:
 Practice:
 Calculate the mass of each of the following
amounts:
– 1.22 mol sodium

– 14.5 mol copper

– 0.275 mol mercury

– 9.37 x 10-3 mol magnesium

 Converting moles to atoms:
 How many moles of lithium are there in
1.204 x 1024 lithium atoms?
 Plan:
 What is given in the problem?
 What are you asked to find?
 Compute:
Calculate the amount of moles in each
of the following quantities:
– 3.01 x 1023 atoms of rubidium.

– 8.08 x 1022 atoms of krypton

– 5 700 000 000 atoms of lead.

– 2.997 x 1025 atoms of vanadium.

Converting amount of an element in moles
to the number of atoms. (Multiply the
number of moles times Avogadro’s number.)
 Calculate the number of atoms in each of the
following amounts:
– 1.004 mol bismuth

– 2.5 mol manganese

– 0.000 000 2 mol helium

– 32.6 mol strontium

 Calculating number of atoms in a
mass.
How many boron atoms are there in 2.00 g
of boron?
 Plan:
 What is given in the problem?
 What are you asked to find?
 **Convert mass of boron into moles, then use Avogadro’s
number to convert moles into number of atoms.
 Compute:
Calculate the number of atoms in each
of the following masses:
– 54.0 g of aluminum

– 69.45 g of lanthanum

– 0.697 g of gallium

– 0.000 000 020 g beryllium

 Converting number of atoms of an
element to mass
 (Reverse the steps in the previous example)

– 6.022 x 1024 atoms of tantalum

– 3.01 x 1021 atoms of cobalt

– 1.506 x 1024 atoms of argon

– 1.20 x 1025 atoms of helium

 Target Check
Carbon has 2 common isotopes. Carbon-12 (12 amu
(by definition)) and carbon-13 (13.003355 amu).
What is the % abundance of carbon-12 if carbon-
13 has 1.07% abundance?

98.93%
Calculate the average atomic mass of oxygen given
the following information: 99.757% oxygen-16
(15.994915 amu), 0.038% oxygen-17 (16.999132
amu) and 0.205% oxygen-18 (17.999160 amu).

15.9994 amu
 Target Check
 Name the 3 fundamental particles of the atom.
Discuss their important properties.
 The fundamental particles are the electron,
proton and neutron. The neutron and proton
are nearly identical in mass, while the mass of
the electron is essentially zero amu. Electrons
are located outside the nucleus and have a
negative charge. Protons, which have a
positive charge, and neutrons, which have no
charge, are located in the nucleus.
 Target Check
 If you are given the complete chemical
symbol for an atom or ion, how can you
determine the number of each kind of
particle in the atom or ion?
 The atomic number of each element
indicates the number of protons and
electrons in a neutral atom. Subtracting
the atomic number from the mass number
will give the number of neutrons.
 Target Check
 Define the term isotope.
 Atoms with the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons.
 Explain how an element’s atomic mass is
related to the abundances of its different
isotopes.
 The atomic mass of an element will be
closest to the mass of the isotope with the
larger % abundance.
 Target Check
 What is an atom?
 List the postulates of Dalton’s atomic
theory of matter.
 Why did the ancient Greeks reject
Democritus’ ideas of atoms?
 What is the law of constant composition?
 Target Check
 How is the structure of an atom related to electricity?
 Michael Faraday first suggested that there was a relationship
between atoms and electricity. A long series of experiments
proved that atoms contain particles that have electrical charge.
 What was concluded about the composition of a cathode ray?
 A cathode ray was determined to be composed of negatively
charged particles that had mass.
 Describe the differences among alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
 Alpha particles have a 2+ charge. Gamma rays are similar to
X-rays and not composed of particles. Beta particles are high
speed electrons.