SCI Q2, Chapter Electron Structure of Matter

Atoms Smallest unit of matter; building block of the universe

Who discovered the electron? JJ Thomson in 1897
Who discovered the proton? Eugen Goldstein in 1886/Rutherford 1917
Who discovered the neutron? James Chadwick in 1932
Who discovered the nucleus? Ernest Rutherford in 1911
Atomic Structure The atom consists of three component parts: Protons,
Neutrons, and Electrons.
Democritus (400 BC) A Greek philosopher that said all matter is made of
tiny particles called "atomos" or atoms
John Dalton's Solid Sphere Atomic Model All matter is composed of atoms; atoms cannot be
divided, created, or destroyed. John Dalton developed
his atomic structure through of his nitric oxide
experiment.
J.J. Thomson's Plum Pudding Atomic Model Atoms is made up of electrons floating in a soup of
protons. He proved his atomic structure through his
cathode ray tube.
Ernest Rutherford's Nuclear Atomic Model Atoms have nucleus surrounded by electrons; he
discovered positively charged nucleus through gold
foil experiment.
Neil Bohr's Planetary Atomic Model Electrons move in fixed orbit (s, p, d, f orbitals) Neil
Bohr developed his atomic structure through atomic
spectra
Erwin Schrodinger's Quantum Mechanical Atomic The exact path of a moving electron cannot be
Model predicted; this doesn't accurately tell us where an
electron is, but where it could be; proposed the
"electron cloud" theory
Uncertainty Principle Werner Heisenberg posited the "uncertainty principle"
no human could ever determine the path of an
electron because observing the electron with light
affected the location.

FIVE (5) ATOMIC MODELS

Around 400 BC, a Greek philosopher named Democritus came up with a theory that
everything in the world was made of tiny indestructible particles called “atomos”, which means
“uncuttable”. However, this theory was largely discredited by Aristotle—the original social
influencer, who believed that everything on this planet was made of four elements: earth, fire,
water, and air.

The next step in atomic theory development didn’t happen for nearly 2000 years, when
British chemist and meteorology enthusiast John Dalton raised some interesting questions.
This gave rise to the law of multiple proportions and the theory of atomism. Following his
breakthrough, Dalton proposed that everything in the world was made up of atoms—tiny
indestructible solid spheres that were unique for every element “solid sphere”. John Dalton
developed his atomic structure through of his nitric oxide experiment.

Until the late 19th century, atoms were envisioned as indivisible particles, but that belief
was shaken by an English physicist named J.J Thomson and his trusty cathode ray tube.
After repeating this experiment several times with other metals, he came up with the first
atomic model—the famous “plum pudding” model. This model characterizes an atom as a
particle that is composed of a positively charged mass (the pudding), as well as tiny negative
charges embedded in it (like plums).

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 Even so, New Zealand-born Ernest Rutherford was not convinced. It was the early
1900s, radioactivity was all the rage, and during his work on radioactive decay, Rutherford
discovered alpha, beta, and gamma rays. The gold-foil experiment, also known as Geiger–
Marsden experiments, consisted of a thin sheet of gold foil with a circular Zinc Sulphide-
coated screen behind it. The screen would flash every time an alpha particle hit it. Backed by
his observations, he proposed an atomic structure “nuclear” where most of the atom’s mass
was concentrated in a positively charged center (which he later named the nucleus) around which the
electrons orbited like planets around the sun.

A year after the publication of Rutherford’s atomic theory, Niel Bohr found a
discrepancy in the model. He developed the model after studying the way glowing, hot
hydrogen gives off light. When an incandescent light bulb is lit, it gives off all the different
wavelengths of light. The evidence used to support the Bohr model came from the atomic
spectra. He used the concept of quantized energy to propose that electrons moved around
the nucleus in fixed orbits or shells “planetary”. A shell closer to the nucleus has lower
energy, while the one farthest away has the highest energy. If an electron jumped to a lower
energy orbit, it would give out the extra energy in the form of radiation, thereby maintaining atomic stability.

With the establishment of the quantum behavior of entities like electrons, it became quite clear that
Bohr’s atomic model didn’t satisfy the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. According to this principle, it’s
impossible to know the exact position and trajectory of electrons in an atom, which means they can’t exist in
fixed orbits, as Bohr hypothesized.

Combining the concept of wave-particle duality and the uncertainty principle, Erwin
Schrödinger came up with the “quantum mechanical model” of an atom. In this model, the
electrons did not revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits, but rather as electron clouds in
an atomic orbital, a region inside the atom where the probability of finding an electron is the
highest. He also formulated the Schrodinger-wave equations that would help us accurately
calculate the energy levels of electrons in an atom. This new and improved atomic model does
not tell us where an electron is, but where it could be.

QUANTUM NUMBERS

Quantum Numbers it gives us the idea how electrons behave; used to

completely describe all the attributes of a given
electron belonging to an atom
Principal Quantum Number indicated the size of an electron
Azimuthal Quantum Number tells us the shapes of the electron orbitals (sphere,
dumbbell, cloud)
Magnetic Quantum Number indicates the orientation of an orbital around the
nucleus (up or down)
Spin Quantum Number indicate the two fundamental spin states of an
electron in an orbital (clockwise/counterclockwise)

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Electron Configuration Representation of the arrangement of the electrons

distributed among the orbital shells and subshells.
S, P, D, F Orbitals S shell: can hold 2 electrons per energy level
P shell: can hold 6 electrons per energy level
D shell: can hold 10 electrons per energy level
F shell: can hold 14 electrons
Electron Configuration Notation Numbers of electrons are represented by adding a
superscript to the sublevel designation.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d
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 7p
Energy Level
1s22s22p4
Sub-levels The main energy level also tells us the number of sub-
1s22s22p4 levels, and the name of the sub-level (s, p, d, f) is also
the same with the name of the orbital.
Atomic Orbitals Every sub-level has a fixed number of atomic orbitals.
(s = 1, p = 3, d = 5, f = 7) The atomic orbital serves as the house of the electron
and it can accommodate a maximum of two electrons.

Bohr's atomic model also known as the planetary model describes the atom like a solar system where
the electron is like a planet and can be found only in specific circular paths or orbits around the nucleus.
Electrons in each orbit have a fixed energy. An electron can jump to a higher energy level by gaining energy
and returns to a lower energy level by releasing energy in the form of light.

Erwin Schrodinger together with Werner Heisenberg and Louis de Broglie made a refinement of Bohr’s
atomic model. Schrodinger used mathematical equations to describe the possibility of finding an electron in a
certain location this model is known as the quantum mechanical model of the atom. Based on the quantum
mechanical model it would be impossible to plot a definite path or orbit for the moving electrons. At least, we
can only guess the most probable location of the electron in a given instead to be within a certain volume or
region of space surrounding the nucleus.

Each energy level contains a certain number of sub-levels; every

sub-level has a fixed number of atomic orbitals. An atomic orbital is the
region around the nucleus where the electron is most likely to be found the
atomic orbital serves as the house of the electron and it can accommodate a
maximum of two electrons.

Energy Sub- Atomic

Level levels Orbitals

Energy levels, sublevels, and atomic orbitals in an atom are used in

order to track where all the electrons in an atom are. Chemists use
notations called electron configuration. This electron configuration is the most stable arrangement in which
the electrons have the lowest energy. An s orbital is spherical in shape; p orbital is dumbbell shaped the three
equivalent p orbitals are p sub x, p sub y and p sub z.

Main Energy Level Number of Type of atomic No. of atomic Total number
sublevels orbitals (S, P, D, orbitals (n2) of electrons
F) (2n2)
n=1 1 S 1 2
n=2 2 S, P 1, 3 2, 6
n=3 3 S, P, D 1, 3, 5 2, 6, 10
n=4 4 S, P, D, F 1, 3, 5, 7 2, 6, 10, 14

In the electron configuration of 1s 22s22p3. 1 and 2 refers to the main energy level occupied by the
electron, thus it also mean that it has 2 sublevels; s and p denotes the kind of orbital and the superscript 2
and 3 for the number of electrons in the orbital. The main energy level also tells us the number of sub-levels,
and the name of the sub-level is also the same with the name of the orbital.

How to get the period and group of an element given its electron configuration?

Let’s use 1s22s22p3 as an example. To get the period, we just need to look at its main energy level,
which is located at the last part of its configuration (2p3). In this example, its energy level is 2; which means
that its period is 2. The main energy level also tells us the element’s period. To get the group, we just need
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to add the number of electrons on s and p (2s 22p3) which is 5. The superscript of s and p sublevels tells us
the element’s group. (which is also its valence electron that can be used to write its lewis symbol)

THREE (3) PRINCIPLES APPLIED IN DERIVING THE ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

3 Principles of Electron Configuration Aufbau Principle, Pauli-exclusion Principle, and

Hund's Rule
Aufbau Principle Electrons fill lower-energy atomic orbitals before filling
higher-energy ones. (aufbau - means building up)
Pauli Exclusion Principle States that a maximum of two electrons can occupy a
single atomic orbital but only if the electrons have
opposite spins
Hund's Rule of Multiplicity Every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before
any orbital is doubly occupied.

Aufbau Principle is also known as the building up principle it states that electrons must
first occupy the orbitals with lower energies than those with higher energies it follows this
pattern or sequence in filling up the orbital.

The first orbital that is assigned two electrons is the 1s followed by two electrons for 2s
and another 2 for each 2p orbital with a total of 6 (for p sub x, p sub y, and p sub z) this
sequence goes on until all the electrons in an atom have been assigned to orbitals. Note that
the maximum number of electrons for the orbitals are: s2, p6, d10, f14. As the wave function
suggests there is a probability of finding an electron within the sphere except at its center
where the nucleus is found.

Let's move on to the next rule which is Pauli’s Exclusion Principle according to
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, only a maximum of two electrons can occupy an orbital and
they must have opposite spins to minimize repulsion between them.

Now let's proceed to the last rule which is Hund’s Rule of

Multiplicity. According to Hund's Rule of Multiplicity when
electrons enter a sub-level with more than one orbital (p, d, f) they
will spread out to the available orbitals with the same spin before
pairing.

As you can observe the electrons in the p orbital have spread out
first to the available orbitals with the same spin before pairing.

The distribution of electrons in the different atomic orbitals is called electron configuration. There are three
rules are applied in the electron configuration these are Aufbau Principle, Pauli’s Exclusion Principle and
Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity.

LEWIS DOT SYMBOL ELECTRON DIAGRAM

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 PERIODIC TABLE

Periodic Table Tabular display of the chemical elements; it is

arranged in increasing atomic number
Ion A charged atom
Atomic Number And Mass Atomic number - protons; atomic mass - protons and
electrons
Series/Periods Horizontal arrangement; rows (1-7)
Family/Group Vertical arrangement; column (1-18)
Representative Elements 1A - 8A (s and p elements)
Transition Elements 1B - 8B (d elements)
Inner Transition Elements Latanites (57 - 71) and actinites (89 - 103)
Group 1A-8A Names Alkali, Alkali Earth Metals, Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen,
Oxygen, Halogens, Noble Gases
Valence Electrons Electrons on the outermost shell
Electronegativity Tendency of an atom to attract electrons; non-metals
have higher electronegativity
Ionization Energy The amount of energy needed to remove an electron
from an atom; non-metals have higher ionization
energy
Octet Rule Atoms tends to prefer to have 8 electrons to be stable;
non-metals have higher tendency (we do not consider
the f and d electrons)

Sci Q2, Chapter 2: Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bonding
Ion Charged atom
Cation Positively charged
Anion Negatively charged
Ionic
Covalent/Molecular
Polar
Non-polar
Metallic

CHEMICAL BONDING is an electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence electron of an atom
and which binds atom together. This type of attraction is called intramolecular force. There are three types of
chemical bonds: ionic, covalent (molecular), metallic.

Ionic bonding is the result from the the total transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another.
Ionic compounds are formed between a metal and a non-metal.

Covalent bonding is the sharing of valence electrons; this occurs in nonmetals/metalloids. It may be
classified as polar and nonpolar covalent. Nonpolar covalent bond is a bond in which the electrons are
equally shared by the bonded atoms. Polar covalent bond refers to the bond in which the bonded atoms have
an unequal sharing of electrons.

Metallic bonding is the bond that holds metal atoms together. It exists in metals when a metal
chemically bonds to either a similar metal or to other metals to form alloys.
[Metal atoms achieve a stable form by sharing its outer shell electrons with other metal atoms. The valence electrons of each
metal atom are not tightly bound in the nucleus so each metal contributes all the electrons in its valence shell to other metal atoms in
the structure. It may describe as the sharing of free electrons among the structure. Sometimes the electrons are called as delocalized
electrons. Delocalized electrons mean that it is not associated with any single atom. The electrons then form a sort of sea of electrons
within the structure. Which is why metal is good conductor of electricity; the electrons move freely between atoms hence current flows.]

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 COMPOUNDS are formed between the chemical combinations of two or more elements. There are
three types of compounds based on their chemical bonding characteristics: ionic compounds, covalent
compounds, and metallic compounds.

An ionic compound is formed from the combination of a metal and non-metal element. Ionic bonds are
the electrostatic force of attraction that hold cations which are positively charged atoms and anions which are
negatively charged atoms together.

Covalent compounds are substances that are formed from the chemical combination of two or more
non-metallic elements. This could be between a non-metal and another non-metal or a metalloid and a non-
metal. Atoms of the different elements are held together in molecules by covalent bonds. Unlike ionic bonds
where electrons completely transfer from one atom to another, covalent bonds share their valence electrons.
The force of attraction between the shared electrons and the positive nuclei of both atoms hold the atoms
together in the molecule. A molecule is the smallest particle of a covalent compound that still has the
properties of the compound. Covalent molecular compounds can be polar or nonpolar.

NAMING MONOATOMIC IONIC COMPOUND

In naming monoatomic ionic compound, the cation is written

first followed by the anion but we put the suffix -ide.
In the case of sodium and chlorine, we first write the cation
sodium as it is followed by the anion chlorine with the suffix -ide to
become sodium chloride. Take note that we do not put prefixes.

When your cation is a transition metal they can have multiple

charges so refer to the list (page 7). For example, Copper can be 1+ or 2+
so we write that as roman numerals. Copper I is a 1+ ion and Copper II is a
2+ ion. In situations like this, the lower charge gets the suffix -ous and
the higher one gets the suffix -ic. So it becomes Cuprous for Copper (I)
and Cupric for Copper (II).

CHEMICAL FORMULAS OF A MONOATOMIC IONIC COMPOUND

Now in writing chemical formulas we have to know the charges of

each atom involved. The idea is to criss-cross the charges. In Sodium
Chloride, Sodium is 1+ and chlorine is 1- so when we criss-cross it
becomes NaCl. In Potassium Oxide, Potassium is 1+ and oxygen is 2- so
when we criss-cross it should be K2O.

When we deal with transition metals that can have multiple

charges, like Ferric Oxide or Iron (III) Oxide, we know that Iron is 3+ from
the roman numeral and Oxygen is a 2- so when we criss-cross it
becomes like that. We also have Ferrous Oxide or Iron (II) Oxide. The
iron has a 2+ and oxygen is a 2- so when we criss-cross it becomes like
this. But another important rule is to keep the subscripts in the lowest
possible ratio so we divide both by two and it becomes like this.

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NAMING MOLECULAR/COVALENT COMPOUNDS

What is a monoatomic covalent compound? It is a compound composed of two non-metals. The less
electronegative non-metal comes first followed by the more electronegative non-metal. For example, if we have
phosphorus and oxygen, phosphorus should come first since it is closer to the bottom and left side of the
periodic table.
The concept is pretty similar with ionic compounds but we do not determine the charges anymore and
instead we put prefixes before elements. Here are the prefixes we will be using:
Mono 1 Hexa 6
Di 2 Hepta 7
Tri 3 Octa 8
Tetra 4 Nona 9
Penta 5 Deca 10

Let's have CO as an example. We know that if there is no

subscript it is automatically one. Again mono can't be used for the
first element so in co we put carbon as it is and then the prefix mono for
the oxygen with the suffix -ide to become carbon monoxide. Another
example is N2O3, nitrogen has two so it becomes dinitrogen and oxygen
has three so it becomes trioxygen but we add the suffix -ide so the whole
compound is dinitrogen trioxide. Let's have a third example with CCL4.
Carbon remains as it is (because we don’t use mono in the first
elements) and then since chlorine has the subscript four we put the prefix
tetra and then the suffix -ide to chlorine so the whole compound becomes carbon tetrachloride.

CHEMICAL NAMES OF A MOLECULAR/COVALENT COMPOUNS

Now if we are given the chemical name and asked to convert it to

chemical formula, it is actually easier. We just write the two elements as
chemical symbols and then have the prefixes as subscripts. For example
in Carbon Dioxide we know that Carbon is 1 and Oxygen is 2 from the prefix
di so we write it like this. Another example is Sulfur Hexabromide. Sulfur
has no prefix so that is automatically 1 and Bromine has the prefix hexa
so it is 6. We now use those values as subscripts and the final formula
should be like this. Our last example is tetraphosphorus decoxide. Don't get
confused this is just phosphorus and oxygen. Phosphorus has the prefix
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tetra so we know that its subscript should be 4 and Oxygen has the prefix deca so its subscript should be 10. Now we
write the final formula like this.

Sci Q2, Chapter 2: Worksheet

IONIC: NAMES TO CHEMICAL FORMULA

NaBr Sodium Bromide
CaO Calcium Oxide
Li2S Lithium Sulfide
MgBr2 Magnesium Bromide
Be(OH)2 Beryllium Hydroxide
KCL Potassium Chloride
FeCL2 Ferrous Chloride/ Iron (II) Chloride
FeCL3 Ferric Chloride/ Iron (II) Chloride
AlS Aluminum Sulfide
Co3N2 Cobalt (II) Nitride

IONIC: CHEMICAL FORMULA TO NAMES

Potassium Iodide KI
Magnesium Oxide MgO
Aluminum Chloride AlCl3
Beryllium Phosphide Be3P2
Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Aluminum Oxide Al2O3
Copper (I) Arsenide Cu3As
Gallium Nitride GaN
Calcium Oxide CaO
Silver Bromide AgBr

COVALENT: NAMES TO CHEMICAL FORMULA

SO3 Sulfur Trioxide
N2 S Dinitrogen Monosulfide
PH3 Phosphorous Trihydride
BF3 Boron Triflouride
P2Br4 Diphosphorous Tetrabromide
CO Carbon Monoxide
SiO2 Silicon Dioxide
SF6 Sulfur Hexaflouride
NH3 Nitrogen Trihydride
NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide
P2O3 Diphosphorous Trioxide
SF6 Sulfur Hexaflouride

COVALENT: CHEMICAL FORMULA TO NAMES

Nitrogen Trichloride NCL3
Boron Carbide BC
Dinitrogen Trioxide N2O3
Tetraphosphorus Pentafluoride P3F5
Trisulfur Dibromide S3Br2
Diboron Tetrahydride B2H4
Decoxygen Difluoride O10F2
Hexacarbon Disulfide C6S2
Nitrogen Monoxide NO
Disulfur trioxide S2O3

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS
IONIC COVALENT
Exist in solid form only Can exist in solid, gas, liquid form
High melting/boiling point Low melting/boiling point
Hard and brittle Soft and flexible
Conducts electricity (if dissolve in water) Non-conductors of electricity
Can’t conduct electricity in solid state Flammable

Sci Q2, Chapter 3: Carbon Structure

Carbon can form chemical bonds with other carbon atoms and nonmetal atoms in many ways such as
(hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, noble gases). They can form single, double, and triple bonds. Organic
compounds are primarily composed of carbon atoms, which are chemically bonded with hydrogen and other
elements.

Properties
High Reactivity/Flammable And Combustile Biodegradable
Insoluble In Water But Soluble In Organic Solvents Has Different Polarity Depending On The Type Of
(Eg. Alcohols And Ethers) Bonding
Low Melting And Boiling Points Water Fearing
Viscosity Voliatility High Vapor Pressure

Hydrocarbons comprised exclusively of carbon and hydrogen. Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes are the three basic
groups of hydrocarbon compounds. Alkanes = single bond; Alkenes = double bond; Alkynes = triple bond.

NAMING HYDROCARBONS
TYPE OF BOND PROPERTIES HYDROCARBON SUFFIX
Single Saturated Alkane -ane
Double Unsaturated Alkene -ene
Triple Unsaturated Alkyne -yne

IUPAC NAMING SYSTEM: VALUE OF THE PREFIX

1 Meth- 6 Hex-
2 Eth- 7 Hept-
3 Prop- 8 Oct-
4 But- 9 Non-
5 Pent- 10 Dec-

ALKANES
Characteristics: Alkanes are also called saturated hydrocarbons, whereas hydrocarbons that
contain multiple bonds are unsaturated. Alkanes are hydrocarbons with single covalent bonds and a general
formula of CnH2n+2, where n is the number of carbon atoms. A single bond forms when carbon shares one pair
of electrons with another atom. The single bond represents the longest covalent bond formed by carbon in
terms of length. Of the three bond types, the single bond also has the lowest bond energy. Bond energy refers
to the strength of a bond between two atoms.
Molecular Formula: In order to get the molecular formula, you must use the formula: CnH2n+2. Just
substitute the n with the value of the prefix.
Condensed/ Expanded Structure: In alkane, you will not see any prefixes in the chemical name (1-,
2-, 3-) since it is a saturated hydrocarbon.

Chemical Name Molecular Formula Condensed Structure Expanded Structure

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 Methane CH4 CH4

Ethane C2H6 CH3CH3

Propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3

Butane C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3

Pentane C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3

ALKENES
Characteristics: Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with double covalent bonds. A double bond forms when carbon shares two pairs of
electrons with another atom. The double bond is shorter in length than a single bond and also possesses a
stronger bond strength. As a result, a double bond between carbon and another atom takes more energy to
break apart than a single bond.

Molecular Formula: To get the molecular formula you must use the formula: CnH2n.
Condensed/Expanded Structure: When the chemical name is given, you may notice the 1-, 2- as a
prefix. The prefix is used to determine where you will put the double bond. If the prefix is 1-, then you must put
the double bond between the first and second carbon atoms. If the prefix is 2-, then you must put the triple
bond between the second and third carbon atoms. and so on…

Chemical Molecular Condensed

Expanded Structure
Name Formula Structure

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 Ethene C2H4 CH2=CH2

1-Propene C3H6 CH2=CHCH3

1-Butene C4H8 CH2=CHCH2CH3

2-Butene C4H8 CH3CH=CHCH3

1-Pentene C5H10 CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3

ALKYNES
Characteristics: It is the simplest of the alkynes, consisting of two carbon atoms connected by a triple
bond, leaving each carbon able to bond to one hydrogen atom. The triple bond is known as the ‘acetylenic
bond’. Triple bonds form when carbon shares three pairs of electrons with another atom. Of the three bond
types, the triple bond is the shortest and the strongest in terms of bond energy. Therefore, a triple bond
between carbon and a second atom requires the most energy to break apart.

Molecular Formula: To get the molecular formula you must use the formula: CnH2n-2.
Condensed/Expanded Structure: When the chemical name is given, you may notice the 1-, 2- as a
prefix. The prefix is used to determine where you will put the triple bond. If the prefix is 1-, then you must put
the triple bond between the first and second carbon atoms. If the prefix is 2-, then you must put the triple bond
between the second and third carbon atoms.

Chemical Name Molecular Formula Condensed Structure Expanded Structure

Ethyne C2H2 CH≡CH

Propyne C3H4 CH≡CCH3

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 1-Butyne C4H6 CH≡CCH2CH3

2-Butyne C4H6 CH3C≡CCH3

1-Pentyne C5H8 CH≡CCH2CH2CH3

2-Pentyne C5H8 CH3C≡CCH2CH3

Hydrocarbons

Saturated Unsaturated

Alkane Alkene Alkyne

C-C -ane C=C -ene C≡C -yne

Weakest and Slightly Strongest

CnH2n+2 Longest CnH2n stronger than CnH2n-2 and Shortest
Bond Alkane Bond

Sci Q2, Chapter 4: Mole Concept

Mole is the measurement in chemistry. It is used to express the amount of a chemical substance.
One mole is defined as the amount of substance of a system which contains as many entities like, atoms,
molecules and ions.
Avogadro number is the number of the particles (or formula unit, molecules, atom) present in one
mole of any substance is equal to 6.02x10 23. This is called avogadro’s number or avogadro’s constant.
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 6.02 𝑥 1023
Representative Particle (it refers to the unit we use when we calculate a particle)

Ionic Formula Unit

Covalent Molecules
Element Atom

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CALCULATION

Formula for Molar Mass:

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐴 × 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐴)

+ (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 × 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐵)
Example: 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 0 = (2 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 × 1𝑔) + (1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 × 16𝑔)

Formula for Mass:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠) × (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)

197𝑔
Example: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝐴𝑢) = 2.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ( )
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Formula for Moles:

(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 =
(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Example: 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝐴𝑢) = 492.5 𝑔 ( )
197𝑔

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
(𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠, 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠))
=
(𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑜 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Example: 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝐻) = 3 × 1024 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 ( 23 )
6.02×10

Formula for Particles/Formula Unit/Atoms/Molecules:

𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠, 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)

= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
× 𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑜 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
6.02×1023
Example: 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝐶𝐻4 ) = 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐻4 ( )
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Formula for Percentage Composition:

% 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
= ( ) × 100
(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑)
Example:
Given: 18.02 g/mol of H20
2.02𝑔
:% 𝑜𝑓 (𝐻) = ( ) × 100
18.02𝑔
16𝑔
:% 𝑜𝑓 (𝑂) = ( ) × 100
18.02𝑔

Ans: H is 11.21% and O is 88.79% = 100%

REMEMBER:
In calculating especially in mole concept, you have to always write the:
a) Given
b) Required
c) Conversion
d) Solution
13 | SCI QUARTER 2 AMOLO
 Never forget to put the corresponding unit and rounding off the answer a) into the nearest hundreds (if
particles); b) into the nearest ones (if molar mass)

Alkali Metals 1A (+1) Highly Naive Kids Rub Cs Fur H, Li, Na, K, Ru, Cs, Fr
Alkali Earth Metals 2A (+2) Bea (And) Meg Came Straight Back Rapidly Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Br, Ra
Boron 3A (+3) BAGIT B, Al, Ga, In, Ti
Carbon 4A Cute Sisters Get Small (TINy) Problems C Si Ge Sn Pb
Nitrogen 5A (-1) New Police Assigns Subordinate Bikbik On Duty Ni P As Sb Bi
Oxygen 6A (-2) Oh, Selena Sent The Post O S Se Te Po
Halogens 7A (-3) First Class Bitlog In Austria F Cl Br I At
Noble Gas 8A Hero Never Arrived; Karen Xeroxed From Rohan He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn

Sci Q1, Chapter 4: Photosynthesis

14 | SCI QUARTER 2 AMOLO