18.

a.
- Organic compound containing nitrogenous bases, a pentose sugar and a
phosphate group

b.

DNA
Consists of 2 long polynucleotide
strands
2 polynucleotide coil around each
other to form a double helix
Only 1 type of DNA
DNA carries genetic information
Pentose sugar is deoxyribose
4 nitrogenous bases is adenine,
thymine, cytosine and guanine
RNA
Consists of a shorter single
polynucleotide strand
No double helix is formed
Three types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA
and rRNA)
Involved in protein synthesis
Pentose sugar is ribose
4 nitogenous bases is adenine, uracil,
cytosine and guanine

c.

- Process used to seperate particles of different electrical charge in an electric

field. The positively charged particles move to the anode. Molecules with no
net charge do not move at all
- Gel electrophoresis can be used for nucleic acid seperation
- The DNA strands are cut into fragements of different lengths using restriction
endonuclease enzymes
- The DNA fragments are placed in a slot in a agarose slab.
- An electric currents is applied
- The phosphate group in DNA fragments are negatively charged at neutral
pH.The negatively charged DNA fragments move towards the positive pole.
- The agarose gel slows down the movement of DNA fragments. The smaller
DNA molecules move faster compared to the larger DNA molecules in the
agarose gel.
-The DNA fragements are then stained with flourescent dye and different DNA
bands are made visible under the ultraviolet light

19.
a.
- competitive inhibitor
- competitive inhibitor have a similar stucture to the natural substrate
- this allows the inhibitor to bind to the active site of the enzyme.
- substrate is hence unable to bind to substrate to active site and rate of
enzyme reaction is reduced

-non competitive inhibitor

- non competitive competitor has no structural similarities to the substrate
- Non competitive inhibitor binds to the allosteric site and changes the
conformation of enzyme binding site
- This hence reduces the enzyme reaction

b.
- coenzymes bind loosely and temporarily to the active site of the enzyme
- they readily detach and help to transfer chemical group, atoms or electrons
from one enzyme to another
- for example malate + NAD+ malate dehydrogenase oxaloacetate + NADH + H+
- Activators are inorganic ions such as Ca2+, Zn2+ and Mg2+
- they may attach temporarily to the enzyme and change its active site to
make the shape more suitable for a reaction to take place. The ion may also
bind the enzyme and substrate together

20.
a.

 -Outer membrane – the outer membrane contains transport proteins

that enable the shuttling of pyruvate from the cytosol
 Inner membrane – contains the electron transport chain and ATP
synthase (used for oxidative phosphorylation) 
 Cristae – the inner membrane is arranged into folds (cristae) that
increase the SA:Vol ratio (more available surface)
 Intermembrane space – small space between membranes maximises
hydrogen gradient upon proton accumulation
 Matrix – central cavity that contains appropriate enzymes and a
suitable pH for the Krebs cycle to occur

b.

- The papaya tree will undergo alcoholic fermentation during waterlogged

conditions

- This is because it will cause a lack of oxygen

- Glucose in the papaya tree will undergo glycolysis

- Glucose molecule is phosphorylated to form glucose – 6 – phosphate

- Glucose – 6 – phosphate is rearranged to form the isomer, fructose – 6 –

phosphate

- Fructose – 6 – phosphate is further activated by the addition of another

phosphate group from the hydrolysis of another ATP

- The fructose – 1, 6 – bisphosphate is split into glyceraldehyde – 3 –

phosphate and its isomer dihydroxyacetone phosphate

- Dihydroxyacetone phosphate rearranges into another glyceraldehyde – 3 –

phosphate

- Glyceraldehyde – 3 – phosphate is oxidized, hydrogen atoms are removed

and NAD+ is reduced to become NADH

- An inorganic phosphate group (Pi) is attached to the substrate making the

product glycerate – 1, 3 – phosphate is of very high potential energy

- One phosphate from each glycerate – 1, 3 – phosphate is transferred to

ADP to form ATP

- Then pyruvate is decarboxylated to a two – carbon ethanal molecule

- The glycerate – 3 – phosphate is rearranged form glycerate – 2 – phosphate

- Removal of water forms phosphoenolpyruvate

- The second phosphate is transferred to ADP from ATP and

phosphoenolpyruvate is converted to pyruvate

- NADH is used to reduce the ethanal molecule to ethanol and NAD+ is

regenerated to be reused