Biology 1113 Notes:

9.1 Notes:

 ATP fuels cellular actions.

o Transfers a negative phosphate to receptor. Anion causes the receptor
to change shape/moves.
o Large potential energy.
o Creation is highly endergonic (uses energy).
 Referred to as phosphorylation.
 ADP transfers phosphate groups.
o Becomes ATP momentarily then loses a phosphate to a receptor.
o Detachment from phosphate is exergonic (gives off energy)
 Metabolism: chemical reactions that occur in living cells.
 Energetic coupling: reactants A and B attempt to bond using the exergonic
energy from ATP to ADP. Phosphate group bonds to B, changes its shape, and
allows A to bond to B also. Phosphate group is released and another
exergonic reaction is produced.
 Redox reactions: chemical reactions that involve the loss or gain of electrons.
o LEO says GER
 LEO: loss of electron, oxidation.
 GER: gain electron, reduction.
o Electron donors are always paired with electron receptors.
o Electrons can either be completely transferred from one atom to
another, or they can shift their positions in a covalent bond.
 Molecules oxidized in cells often loose a proton and an electron.
 The oxidation of glucose is necessary to rejoin ADP and PI (the phosphate).
 ATP is a nucleotide.
 Electronegativity is the determining factor for if a chemical is oxidized
or reduced.
o Low electronegativity is usually oxidized.
o High electronegativity is usually reduced.

9.2 Notes:

 Respiration: glucose + O2 + ADP + PI.  CO2 + H2O + ATP.

 Fermentation: glucose + ADP + Pi.  Small organic molecules +ATP.
 Cellular respiration:
o Glucose is broken down into pyruvate (three carbon compound).
o Pyruvate is processed to form the compound acetyl-CoA.
o Acetyl-CoA is oxidized to CO2.
o Compounds in steps 1-3 are oxidized in reactions that produce ATP.
 Monosaccharide Glucose: used as a primary fuel in many organisms.
o Glycolysis: the oxidation of glucose.
 One molecule of the six carbon sugar is broken into two
molecules of pyruvate (three carbon). Potential energy is
 released and turns ADP to ATP. Reduces nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD+).
 NAD++2e--->NADH.
 Donates electrons and is an electron carrier.
 Pyruvate processing:
o If an electron acceptor (possibly oxygen) is present in a cell, pyruvate
goes through a sequence of reactions that produces acetyl-CoA. The
redox reaction has two results.
o NADH is synthesized.
o One three-carbon atom in pyruvate is oxidized to carbon dioxide.
 Krebs Cycle:
o A key sequence of reactions formed by the acetyl CoA produced by the
pyruvate processing.
 Each acetyl-CoA molecule is oxidized into two molecules of
CO2.
 Potential energy is released to:
 Reduce NAD+ to NADH.
 Reduce flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) to FADH2
(electron carrier).
 Phosphorylate ADP to ATP.
 Acetyl-CoA enters cycle wherein FADH2, NADH, and ATP are
produced.
 Electron transport chain: the proteins involved in redox reactions.
o As electrons are passed along the chain they fall from a higher to a
lower potential energy.
o In eukaryotes, ETC is located in the inner membrane of mitochondria.
o In bacteria and archaea, ETC is found in the plasma membrane.
o Redox reactions allow proteins in the electron transport chain to pup
proteins across the inner membrane of the mitochondria. When the
proteins flow back across the membrane through ATP synthase, ATP
is synthesized from ADP.
 ADP diffuses into mitochondria along the concentration
gradient.
 ATP DIFFUSES OUT ALONG THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT.
o Once NADH and FADH have passed through the chain tjey are
transferred to a final electron acceptor (oxygen). Results in water.
o Chemical energy is transferred from glucose to ATP via NADH and
FADH2.
o Cellular respiration: any process of ATP production that involves a
compound acting as an electron donor, an electron transport chain,
and an electron acceptor.
 Oxidative phosphorylation: mode of ATP production that links
phosphhorylation of ADP with the oxidation of NADH and FADH2.
  Substrate level phosphorylation: ATP is produced by enzyme-catalyzed
phosphorylation. Enzymes catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from a
phosphorylated substrate, not from a proton gradient.
o Enzyme accepts ADP and phosphorylated substrate. Substrate
releases phosphate group and ADP accepts it. ATP is formed.
o Cellular respiration cannot occur if the final electron acceptor (NADH
and FADH2) are not available. Nevertheless a fermentation process
with thus begin
 Fermentation allows glycolysis to continue even if pyruvate is
not processed into acetyl-CoA.
 Produces ethanol and lactic acid is som species of
eukaryotes.
 Other fermentation pathways and products are possible
in bacteria and archaea.
 Glucose oxidation produces CO2, ATP, and electron carriers (NADH, FADH2).
 Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor.
 Protons flowing down a gradient of ETC allow ATP synthase to make ATPl

9.3 Notes:

 Cellular respiration.
o Glycolysis pyruvate processing  Krebs cycle Electron transport
& oxidative phosphorylation.
 Fermentation:
o Glycolysis pyruvate (no electron acceptor (Oxygen)
available)fermentation.
 Glycolysis:
o Occurs in the cytosol.
 All ten reactions occur here.
o Key points:
 Glycolysis starts by using ATP.
 Glucose is phosphrylated to form glucose-6-phosphate.
Enzymes arrange it into fructose-6-phosphate.
Phosphate group is added and fructose-1, 6-
biphosphate occurs. Two ATP molecules are used
before any are produced.
 After said reactions are complete, NADH and ATP are
produced. Sixth reaction results in the reduction of two NAD+
molecules. The seventh and final produce two ATP molecules.
 For each glucose processed, two molecules of NADH,
two ATP, and two of pyruvate are produced.
 Production of ATP occurs by substrate-level phosphorylation.
o Occurs only when cells need a new supply of ATP.
o Phosphofructokinase: catalyzes fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate.
  The enzyme is regulated by ATP and can be stopped if an
output is not necessary.
 Feedback inhibiton: the product of the reaction sequence
inhibits an enzyme in a pathway. Will stop the reaction
sequence if the product is abundant.
 Enzyme 1  Enzyme 2  Enzyme 3  product
o Product inhibits enzyme 1.
 Regulatory site: a receptor site that changes enzyme activity.
 If ATP concentrations are high, the molecule binds at a
regulatory site on phosphofructokinase. When it bonds the
enzyme’s conformation changes and lowers the reaction rate at
the active site. ATP acts as an allosteric regulator.

9.4 Notes:

 Pyruvate that is produced in eukaryotes by glycolysis is transported from the

cytosol to mitochondria.
 Mitochondria are filled with sack like structures called cristae. The inter-
membrane space is called the mitochondrial matrix.
o Pyruvate’s move across the mitochondrion’s outer membrane and
into the inter-membrane space through pores. Entry into the matrix
occurs through active transport with the protein called the pyruvate
carrier. This is an energy consumption step in glucose oxidation.
 Coenzyme A (CoA) is a coenzyme that accepts and transfers an acetyl group
to the substrate. This forms acetyl CoA and is then transferred to an acceptor
molecule.
o Pyruvate reacts with CoA to produce Acetyl CoA.
 Produced through the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase.
 In eukaryotes PD is located in the mitochondrial
matrix.
 In bacteria and archaea PD is located in the cytosol.
o Pyruvate processing is under negative and positive control.
 Large supplies of products inhibit the enzyme complex and
large supplies of reactants (low supply of products) stimulate
it. It is a regulatory point in glucose oxidation.

9.5 Notes:

 Carboxylic Acids: R-COOH. May produce CO2.

 Glucose oxidation increases with the addition of carboxylic acids.
 Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
o When pyruvates are added Oxaloacetate (most oxidized acid) form
citrate acids, which begin the cycle again.
o Guanosine triphosphate: a product of the oxidation of one of the
carbons in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
 Produced through substrate level phosphorylation.
  In eukaryotes most of the enzymes responsible for the Krebs
cycle are located in the mitochondrial matrix.
 Cycle is regulated at multiple points by different mechanisms of feedback
inhibition.
o ATP: if ATP is excessive the reaction rate will slow down.
o NADH: provides competitive inhibition as it binds to an enzymes
active site @ isocitrate and a-Ketoglutarate.
 Cells match the rate of cellular respiration.
 Aceytl CoA is the first substrate to enter the Krebs cycle.

9.6 Notes:

 Molecules responsible for the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 are designated
the electron transport chain (ETC).
o As electrons pass from one protein to another in the chain, the energy
released by the redox reactions is used to pump proteins across the
inner membrane of mitochondria. Once the gradient is established a
stream of protons through the enzyme ATP synthase drives the
production of ATP from ADP and Pi. When electrons are accepted by
oxygen to form H2O the oxidation of glucose is complete.
 ETC:
o Most of the molecules are proteins that contain distinctive chemical
groups where the redox events take place. Active group includes
flavins (ring containing structures) or iron-sulfur complexes or iron-
containing heme groups. Each are easily reduced/oxidized.
o Inner membrane of the mitochondrion contains ubiquinone, which
is not a protein. Also called Coenzyme Q or just Q. Consists of
carbon containing ring attached to isoprene subunit tail. The structure
of Q determines the molecules function. Long isoprene-rich tail is
hydrophobic, and Q is lipid soluble. Moves through the mitochondrial
membrane efficiently.
o Molecules involved in processing NADH and FADH2 differ in
electonegativity or their tendency to hold electrons.
 Q and ETC proteins cycle though reduced and oxidized state and because
they differ in electronegativity they should be arranged in a logical sequence.
 Electron transport takes place within the inner mitochondrial membrane.
o Its job is to pump proteins from the matrix of the mitochondrion
through the inner membrane and out to the inter-membrane space or
the interior of cristae.
 Peter Michell.
o Proton-motive force: an electro-chemical gradient favoring the
movement of protons back into the matrix. Is used by enzymes in the
inner membrane to synthesize ATP.
o Chemiosmosis: the production of ATP via a proton gradient.
o Bacteriorhodopsin: a light activated proton-pump that is a membrane
protein.
  Once light is added to a vesicle and the bacteriorhodopsin pumps protons out
a gradient is formed. ATP is synthesized.
 Q and cytochrome c act as shuttles that transfer electrons between
complexes. Q carries a protein and electron across the membrane.
 ATP Synthase: a stalk and knob diagram composed of F0 and F1 units.
o F0: allows a flow of protons that causes the stalk connecting the
subunits to spin.
o F1: As this unit spins with the stalk, its subunits change shape in a way
that catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.
 Oxidative phosphorylation: the creation of ATP through proton pumping
through the ETC and action of ATP synthase.
 The phosphorylation of ADP is base on the oxidation of NADH and FADH2.
 30 ATP molecules are produced for every molecule of glucose.
o Most is produced through oxidative phosphorylation.
 2 molecules of ATP are produced through the Krebs Cycle.
 Cellular respiration can occur without oxygen.
o Aerobic: species that depend on oxygen as an electron acceptor for
the ETC.
o Anaerobic: species that do not depend on oxygen as an electron
acceptor for the ETC.
 Oxygen is the most effective electron acceptor due to its high
electronegativity (holds electrons tightly).
o Produces a high difference in potential energy.
 Cells that do not use oxygen as their electron acceptor do not generate a large
potential energy difference. They do not make as much ATP.
o Anaerobic organisms will grow slower than aerobic ones.

9.7 Notes:

 Fermentation: the metabolic pathway that regenerates NAD+ from NADH

thus allowing glycolysis to produce ATP in the absence of electron acceptors
required by the ECT.
o An alternative method to produce energy when oxygen supplies
temporarily run out.
o Lactic acid fermentation: the formation that occurs when pyruvates
produced by glcolysis accept electrons and form lactate.
o Alcohol fermentation: uses all available oxygen as well as glycolysis
to metabolize sugars. Enzymatically converts pyruvate to a two-
carbon acetylaldehyde. Accepts electrons to create ethanol.
 Bacteria and Achaea live exclusively through fermentation.
 Considered extremely inefficient compared to cellular respiration.
 Produces 2 molecules of ATP to oxygen’s 30.
 Facultative aerobes: organisms that can use either cellular respiration or
fermentation.

9.8 Notes:
 Catabolic pathways: reactions that result in the breakdown of molecules and
the production of ATP.
 Anabolic pathways: Result in the synthesis of larger molecules from smaller
components.
 Fats are broken down in cells by enzymes to form glycerol and acetyl CoA.
o Glycerol enters the glyolytic pathway once it has been oxidized and
phsophorylated to form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
o Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle.
 Proteins can be catabolized to produce ATP.
o Broken to amino acids and amino (-NH2) groups (removed in enzyme-
catalyzed reactions).
 Excreted as waste and urine.
 Fatty acids Acetyl CoA  Krebs cycle
 Glycerol Glycolysis PyruvateAcetyl CoA Krebs cycle
o Fats are generally used second.
 Carbohydrates Sugars Glucose Glycolysis PyruvateAcetyl CoA
Krebs cycle
o If all three are available in a cell Carbohydrates are used first.
 Proteins Amino acids NH3 (excreted) PyruvateAcetyl CoA Krebs
cycle.
o Proteins are used last.
 Anabolic Pathway Info:
o Krebs cycle synthesizes 21 amino acids necessary for humans.
o Acetyl CoA is the starting point for anabolic pathways resulting in the
synthesis of fatty acids.
o Molecule produced in the first reaction in glycolysis can be oxidized to
start the synthesis of ribose-5-phosphate (an intermediate= used in
the production of RNA and DNA.
o If ATP is excessive, pyruvate and lactate can be used as a substrate in
the synthesis of glucose. Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and
stored.
 Cellular Respiration:
o C6H12O6+6O2 6CO2+6H2O+30ATP
 Glycolysis 2NADH, 2 ATP
 2Pyruvate 2 CO2, 2NADH
 Acetyl CoA Krebs Cycle
 Krebs Cycle 2 ATP, 4 CO2, 2 FADH2, 6 NADH
 Electron Transport Chain O2: H2O
 Oxidative Phosphorylation 26 ADP.
o Electron Transport Chain: the components consist of a series of
enzyme complexes embedded in the cristae or inner membrane folds
of mitochondria. There are similar chains in a signal mitochondrion.
o Isomer: an object having the same chemical formula but different
structure.
10.1 Notes:

 Photosynthesis: using sunlight to manufacture carbohydrates. Most

important biochemical process.
o Autotrophs: the name given to organisms due to their ability
to produce their own food from ions and molecules.
o Heterotrophs: animals and species that obtain their food from
other sources.
o 6CO2+12H2O+Light energyC6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
 Close to the reverse of Cellular Respiration.
 Calvin Cycle: using 14CO2 to radioisotope certain types algae molecules
in an attempt to find the sequence of reactions involved in reducing
CO2 to sugars.
o Light dependant reactions result in the production of oxygen
from water wile the Calvin cycle results in the production of
sugar (CH2O) from carbon dioxide.
 Photosynthesis chemical cycle:
o Sunlight breaks H2O down to O2.
o ATP forms NADPH, an electron carrier.
o CO2 uses electrons to form CH2O
 Structure of chloroplast:
o Photosynthesis takes place only in the green portion of plants.
 Occurs in cellular organelles called chloroplasts.
 Contain 40-50 per cell.
 500,000 per leaf.
 Chloroplasts are membrane rich.
o OUTER MEMBRANE.
o INNER MEMBRANE.
o STROMA. (Fluid filled space between thylakoids).
o GRANUM.
o THYLAKOIDS. (Interior space referred to as LUMEN.)
 Pigments: molecules that absorb specific wavelengths of light. Others
are transmitted or reflected.
o Chlorophyll: most abundant pigment in plants. Transmits
green light. Responsible for the color.
 Derived from proplastids.

10.2 Notes:

 Photosynthesis begins with light dependant reactions (Sunlight strikes

chlorophyll)
 Wavelength: The distance between two equal points on different waves.
o Determines the electromagnetic radiation.
o Electromagnetic spectrum: the range of wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation.
  Visible light: ER that the human eye can see. (400-710 nm)
 Photons: the specific packages that light occurs in.
 Sunlight is white therefore it includes all visible
wavelengths.
o If a pigment absorbs all visible wavelengths it will appear to be black.
o If a pigment absorbs most visible wavelengths it will be blue-green.
 Will reflect red.
 Thin Layer Chromatography: a way to isolate various pigments in
photosynthetic tissues.
 Absorption spectrum: a plot of light absorbed vs. wavelength.
 Two major classes of pigments:
o Chlorophylls: Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b
 Absorb blue and red regions of the spectrum.
 Transmits/reflects green light.
 Head compose of ring structure with a magnesium atom in the
middle. Tail composed of isoprene subunits. Tail keeps the
molecules in place, head is where the light is absorbed.
o Carotenoids: Beta-carotene
 Absorb blue and green regions of the spectrum.
 Transmits/reflects yellow, orange, or red.
 Action spectrum: The efficiency with which electromagnetic radiation
produces a photochemical reaction plotted as a function of the wavelength of
the radiation.
 Specific areas/pigments of a plant are most effective at driving
photosynthesis. Chlorophylls are the main photosynthetic pigments.
 Yellow color in trees during fall is due to the death of chlorophyll and the
retaining of xanthophylls and carotenes.
o They serve as preservation for the leaves. Without them they would
turn white and die.
o Carotenoids can accept free radicals and stabilize unpaired electrons.
It protects chlorophyll from harm when photons “overpower” them.
 Flavonoids absorb ultraviolet radiation.
 If electrons are excited by photons it means electromagnetic radiation energy
is being transferred to electrons that now have a high potential energy.
 Fluorescence: The heat released (electromagnetic radiation) when electrons
fall back to ground state.
 Photosystem: the grouping together of chlorophyll molecules and accessory
pigments (carotenoids) in an array of proteins. Has two main elements:
o Antenna Complex: When red or blue photons strike a pigment
molecule here the energy is absorbed and electrons are excited. The
energy (not the electron) is passed to nearby chlorophyll molecules
where their electrons are also excited. Sends it to the reaction center.
o Reaction Center: electrons are transferred to a molecule that acts as
an electron acceptor. The electromagnetic energy is then changed into
chemical energy and cannot be fluoresced.
 o Ferredoxin: electrons move this molecule to the enzyme
ferredoxin/NADPH oxyireductase (NADP+ reductase) to create
NADPH.
o Photosystem I produces NADPH which is an electron carrier that can
donate electrons and thus reduce them.
 Pigments will absorb only specific wavelengths due to the fact that they
absorb only amounts of energy necessary to elevate an electron from
one orbital to the next.

10.3 Notes:

o Photosynthesis is much more effective when photosystem 1 and 2 are

working together.
o Photosystem II: Triggers chemiosmosis and ATP synthesis in the
chloroplast.
o Antenna complex transmits energy to the reaction center and
pheophytin (identical to chlorophyll but lacks magnesium) accepts
electrons. When electrons in the reaction center are excited it bonds
to pheophytin and the chlorophyll reaction center is oxidized. When
pheophytin is reduced the energy transformation step is complete.
 Electrons that reach pheophytin are passed to an Electron
Transport Chain in the thylakoid membrane. Pumps protons.
 Plastoquinone (PQ): receives electrons from pheophytin and
carries them to electronegative molecules on the other side of
the membrane.
 Quinone: hydrophobic molecules, lipid soluble. Not
anchored to protein.
 Photophosphorylation: light energy captured by
chlorophyll is transformed into chemical energy and
stored as ATP.
 When excited electrons leave photosystem II and enter the ETC
the photosystem becomes extremely electronegative and
enzymes strip electrons from water leaving protons and
oxygen. It is highly endergonic and sunlight drives it by
removing electrons from photosystem II.
 Oxygenic: oxygen-producing photosynthesis.
 Anoxygenic: non-oxygen producing photosynthesis.
o Z scheme: Photosystems I and II work together to produce ATP, hydrogen,
oxygen, and NADPH.
o Plastocyanin: electrons are passed to these from the cytochome
complex and diffuses through the lumen of the thylakoid thus
donating electrons to photosystem I.
o Is considered a non-cyclic flow
o Cyclic photophosphorylation: coexists with the z-scheme and produces extra
ATP. Reduces CO2 and produces sugars.
10.4 Notes:

o Calvin Cycle:
o Testing the three phase of carbon reduction.
o Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) is an initial reactant.
o Phases:
 Fixation phase: CO2 reacts with RuBP produces two 3-
phosphoglycerate molecules. Carbon fixation (CO2+organic
compound).
 Reduction phase: 3-phosphoglycerate molecules are
phosphorylated by ATP and reduced by NADPH. Produces
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), a sugar.
 Regeneration phase: G3P keeps the cycle going by serving as
the substrate for the third phase in the cycle. Results in the
production of RuBP.
o The discovery of the cycle showed how ATP and NADPH produced
light-dependent reactions allow cells to reduce CO2 to
carbohydrates (CH2O). Sugars store potential energy, producing
them takes large chemical energy. During photosynthesis energy
required to reduce CO2 to sugar is provided by ATP and NADPH
synthesized in the light-dependent reactions.
o Rubisco: a CO2 fixing enzyme.
o Inefficient as it catalyzes the addition of O2 to RuBP as well as CO2 to
RuBP. Oxygen and carbon dioxide compete at the enzymes active site
which slows the rate of CO2 reduction.
o Common in bundle-sheath cells that surround vascular tissue in the
interior of the leaf. Vascular tissue conducts water and nutrients in
plants.
o Maladaptive: a trait that reduces the fitness of individuals.
o Photorespiration: the consummation of energy and undoing carbon
fixation. Can be considered a reverse photosynthesis.
o Photosynthesis declines when this occurs.
o Guard Cells: open and close according to how much CO2 is needed within the
cell. The opening is called a pore and the structure is called the stoma.
o CO2 diffuses along the concentration gradient.
o C3 photosynthesis: the production of a three-carbon sugar.
o C4 photosynthesis: Store CO2 in one cell. The production of a four-carbon
sugar.
o PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 in meophyll cells.
o Four-carbon organic acids result in a travel to the bundle-sheath cells.
o Four-carbon organic acids release CO2 molecule that rubisco uses as
substrate to form 3-phosphoglycerate.
o Initiates Calvin cycle.
o Pep carboxylase: an enzyme that adds CO2 to RuBP.
o Common in mesophyll cells (near the surface of leafs.)
o CAM plants: Store during night and use during day.
 o Carassulacean acid metabolism, a photosynthetic pathway for
photorespiration.
o Occur in plants living in hot conditions.
o Keeps the stomata closed during the day.
o Functions as a CO2 pump to minimize the amount of photorespiration
that occurs when stomata are closed and CO2 can not diffuse in
directly from the atmosphere.
o C4 plants, the reactions are catalyzed by PEP-carboxylase and rubisco
are separated in space. CAM plants are sparated in time.
o Starch may be produced inside chloroplast as a stored method alternative to
glucose/sucrose.
o Acts as a temporary sugar-storage product. Not water soluble, cannot
be transported from photosynthetic cells to other areas of the plant.
At night it is stored in leaf cells and is broken down to manufacture
sucrose molecules. Sucrose is used by photosynthetic cells in
respiration or transported to other areas of the plant.
o For every glucose molecule being made in a plant 6 rounds are
necessary form the Calvin cycle.
o C4 plants use carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle in spatially separated areas.
The carbon fixation occurs in the mesophyll cells and the Calvin cycle occurs
in the bundle-sheath cells.
o CAM plants have carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle occurring in the
mesophyll cells, but they are separated by times of day. Carbon fixation
occurs at night, and the Calvin cycle occurs during the day.
o ATP and NADPH are produced by the light reactions.
o The products of non-cyclic electron flow ultimately end up in the Calvin
Cycle.
o Cyclic electron flow allows plants to keep the Calvin cycle running without
accumulating NADPH.

10.1 Notes:

o Cell division: cells arise through the division of pre-existing cells.

o Embryos: newly developing individuals.
o Gametes: reproductive cells from both male a female.
 All other cells are referred to as Somatic cells.
o Meiosis: daughter cells do not contain the same genetic material as
the parent cell. It is a combination.
o Mitosis: daughter cells contain the same genetic material as the parent
cell.
 Accompanied by cytokinesis: the division of the cytoplasm
into two daughter cells.
 Responsible for three key events:
 Growth
 Wound repair
 Reproduction: asexual (genetically identical offspring).
 o Chromosomes: threadlike structures found in dividing cells. Made
from DNA. It is a loop of DNA wrapped around proteins in a highly
organized manner.
o Cells are not constantly dividing and growing.
 Mitotic (M) phase: a dividing phase.
 Interphase: a non-dividing phase.
 Synthesis (S) phase: DNA synthesis.
o Cell Cycle: the orderly sequence of events that occurs from the formation of a
eukaryotic cell to the through the duplication of its chromosomes to the time
it undergoes division itself.
o Chromosomes and hereditary material are replicated.
o Daughter cells inherit copied chromosomes.
o Note: hereditary material is duplicated with one copy going to each
daughter cell during mitosis. The daughter cells contain genetic
information identical to the parent cell.
o Diploid # = # of chromosomes.
o Haploid # = # of chromosomes / 2
o Molecules of DNA = # of chromosomes
o G2 phase: the lag between the end of the pulse and the appearance of the first
mitotic nuclei. Between the end of the S phase and the beginning of the M
phase.
o G1 phase: a gap twice as long as the G2 phase that occurs after the M phase
but before the S phase.
o Binary Fission: replication of bacterial cells.
o Chromosomes locate in the middle of the cell.
o Chromosome replicates.
o Chromosomes pull a part to opposite ends of the cell. Separated by
FtsZ protein ring.
o FtsZ ring constricts, membrane and cell wall enfold.
o Cells are pinched off and separate into identical daughter cells.

11.2 Notes:

o Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell.

o Mitosis:
o G1:
 Un-replicated chromosomes in the parent cell.
 Begin to replicate.
o S phase and G2:
 Replicated chromosomes.
 Sister chomatids form.
o Mitosis:
 Replicated chromosomes shrink and divide equally into two
separate cells.
 Daughter cells contain same number of chromosomes as the
parents.
  Daughter cells are formed by cytokinesis.
o Histones: globular protein a group of globular proteins in eukaryotic
association with chromatin (found within).
o Chromatin: DNA protein material.
o Chromatid: the DNA copies in a replicated chromosome.
o Sister chromatids: chromatids from the same chromosome.
 Represent exact copies of the same genetic information. Each
chromatid contains one long DNA double helix. At the start of
the M phase, then, each chromosome consists of two sister
chromatids that are attached to one another at the centromere.
o Centromere: a region of a chromosome where chromatids join together.
o During mitosis the sister chromatids separate to form independent
chromosomes, and one copy of each chromosome goes to each of the two
daughter cells. Due to this each daughter cell receives a copy of the genetic
information that is contained in each chromosome. Every daughter cell ends
up with exactly the same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell had
prior to replication, and thus every daughter cell receives the same genetic
information.
o IPPMAT:
o Interphase: NOT A PART OF MITOSIS
 After chromosome replication occurs each chromosome is
composed of two sister chromatids and centrosomes have
been replicated.
o Prophase:
 Chromosomes shrink and mitotic spindle begins to form.
 Mitotic spindle: mechanical force that pulls
chromosomes into the daughter cells.
o Prometaphase:
 Nuclear envelope breaks and spindle fibres contact the
chromosomes at the kinetochore.
 Kinetochore: chromatids are made at these structures.
Located at the centromere region of the chromosome.
o Metaphase:
 Chromosomes completely line up in the middle of the cell over
the imaginary “metaphase plate”.
o Anaphase:
 Sister chromatids separate. Chromosomes are pulled to either
centrosome on opposite sides of the cell.
o Telophase
 Nuclear envelopes re-form and the spindle apparatus
disintegrates.
o Cytokinesis:
o Animals, Fungi, Slime molds:
 Cleavage Furrow: a ring of actin filaments forms inside the
plasma membrane and bisects the cell.
 o Plants:
 Cell plate: vesicles from the Golgi apparatus are transported to
the middle of the dividing cell where they form a wall of sorts.
This wall builds up until it divides the two daughter cells.
o Spindle Fibers:
o Grow from the microtubule organizing center until their plus end
attaches to the kinetochore.
 When sister chromatids separate the microtubules are
“dragged” into the kinetochore.
 The kinetochore plates attach to the chromosome.
 Fibers containing motor proteins are attached to the
microtubules.
o Tubulin subunits are “spat” out as the
kinetochore motor “eats” towards the minus end.

11.3 Notes:

o Intestinal cells divide more than twice a day in a human while muscle and
nerve cells in a mature human do not divide at all.
o G1 is eliminated in rapidly dividing cells. G1 is a constant phase in non-
dividing cells.
o The later state of inability to divide is called G0.
o Nerve and muscle cells enter G0 once they have matured.
o Cell division rate depends on what is necessary for that cell. If the liver is
normal its cells divide once a year, but if it is damaged they divide every one
or two days until healthy.
o Oocyte: a cell that is about to change to a mature egg.
o The cytoplasm that carries M phase material will force immature oocytes
into that phase even though they might not be ready.
o Mitosis-Promoting factor (MPF): induces mitosis in all eukaryotes.
 Contains proteins but no RNA.
o MPF:
o Protein kinase: one subunit of MPF that catalyzes the transfer of a
phosphate group from ATP to a target protein.
o Cyclins: second subunit of MPF that activates protein kinase.
 The two groups form a cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)
o The number of complete MPF dimmers builds up during interphase.
o MPF activates an enzyme complex that promotes the degradation of
MPF’s own cyclin subunit. By activating this enzyme complex, MPF
triggers its own destruction. It is an example of negative feedback.
o CDK+Cyclin = MPF
o Cell cycle checkpoint: a critical point in the cell cycle that is
regulated and keeps the cell from over producing.
 Tumor: a group of cells that continue to grow without being
stopped.
 Checkpoints: Mature cells enter G0 do not go through cycle.
  G1:
o Must have sufficient nutrients,
o Growth factors,
o Adequate cell size,
o Undamaged DNA.
 If DNA is damaged p53 protein activates
genes that either stop the cell cycle until
the damage is repaired or destroys the
cell (apoptosis).
 P53= tumor suppressor.
 G2:
o Successfully completed chromosome replication,
o No DNA damage,
o Activated MPF present.
 Metaphase checkpoint:
o All chromosomes are attached to the mitotic
spindle.
 CYCLE:
 G1(G0 if a mature cell) S (DNA synthesis) G2
Mitosis.
o The consequence of uncontrolled cell division is cancer.

11.4 Notes:

o Cancer: a disease caused by uncontrolled cell growth that spreads to other

sites in the body. It affects an array of different organs.
o Arises from cells where cell-cycle checkpoints have failed. The cells
have two main defects:
 Proteins required for cell growth are active at all times.
 Tumor suppressing genes are unable to shut down the cell
cycle.
o Surgical removal of the tumor is the first main step.
o Benign Tumor: non-invasive cells that are considered non-cancerous.
 May become cancerous if the cells detach and invade other
tissues.
o Malignant Tumor: invasive cells that are considered cancerous.
 Metastasis: the uncontrolled growth and movement of
cancerous cells through the blood and lymph system.
 Most types of cancer involve a defect at the G1 checkpoint.
o Growth factors: polypeptides or small proteins responsible for
stimulating cell division.
o Serum: the liquid remaining after blood clots and the blood cells have
been removed.
o Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF): a protein that allows cells to
pass through the G1 checkpoint.
 Growth factors arrive from cells,
  Growth factors increase cyclin and E2F,
 Cyclin binds to CDK, CDK is phosphorylated. RB inactivates E2F
by binding to it.
 CDK is activated by dephosphorylation. It catalyzes
phosphorylation of Rb.
 Rb releases E2F
 E2F enters the nucleus and triggers production of S-phase
proteins.
o Platelets: promote blood clotting at wound sites.
o Rb protein: one of the key molecules that enforces the G1 checkpoint.
o Most cancer develops after several genes have been damaged. The
combined damage is enough to break cell-cycle control and induce
uncontrolled growth and metastasis. Each type of cancer is due to a
unique combination of errors. Hundreds, if not thousands of different
defects can cause it.