Energy and Respiration

1. GLYCOLYSIS
- Takes place in the cytoplasm
- Process in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Outline the process.
1. Starts with the phosphorylation of glucose. Glucose (6C) is phosphorylated by 2 ATP
to form fructose 1,6 bisphosphate.
2. Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate splits into two molecules of triose phosphate (3C).
3. Hydrogen is removed from triose phosphate and transferred to carrier molecule NAD
to form 2 reduced NAD (NADH) through oxidation.
4. Phosphate group is transferred from the intermediate step to form 4 ATP through
substrate-linked phosphorylation.
5. 2 molecules of pyruvate are produced which can be used for the next stage. (2
Triose phosphate = 2 Pyruvate)
- Substrate-link phosphorylation: directly transferring a phosphate group from a substrate to
an ADP molecule (ADP  ATP)
- Oxidative phosphorylation: the production of ATP from oxidised NADH and FADH.
Results in the production of

 2 pyruvates (3C)
 Net gain 2 ATP
 2 reduced NAD
2. THE LINK REACTION
- Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix
- Links glycolysis to the Krebs cycle
Outline the process.
1. Pyruvate loses carbon dioxide through decarboxylation and loses hydrogen through
dehydrogenation.
2. Then it combines with coenzyme A (coA) to produce acetyl coenzyme A (2C).
3. CO2 is released as a gas and H is used to reduce NAD to NADH.

3. THE KREBS CYCLE

- Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix
Outline the process.
1. Acetyl coenzyme A (2C) combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C). CoA is
removed and can be used again in next link reaction.
2. In first step, nothing is produced.
3. In second step, dehydrogenation and decarboxylation occurs forming NADH and
CO2. Number of carbons will be reduced by one, leaving 5 carbons in critrate.
4. In third step, same thing happens, leaving 4 carbons in citrate.
5. Substrate-linked reaction is transfer of a phosphate group from one of the substrates
in the reactions, to an ADP molecule forming ATP.
6. FAD is reduced forming FADH2.
7. NAD reduced (NADH)
8. Oxaloacetate regenerated. This can combine with another acetyl coA.
Results in the production of: 2 CO2 molecules are produced,

 2 ATP
 6 NADH
 2 FADH
4. OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION AND THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- Takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae)
Outline the process.
1. Hydrogens removed from NADH and FADH through oxidation.
2. Hydrogen atoms split into electrons and protons (H+).
3. Electrons are passed along ETC. These electrons will release energy as they pass
through ETC.
4. Energy released is used to pump protons (H+) from the mitochondrial matrix to the
intermembrane space. Proton gradient formed.
5. Protons accumulating in the intermembrane space diffused down the concentration
gradient through the ATP synthase back into mitochondrial matrix.
6. Movement of hydrogen ions through ATP synthase indicates the phosphorylation of
ADP to reform ATP. (chemiosmosis)
7. Electron that released the end of the ETC combines with O2 and H+ forming water.

MITOCHONDRIA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

- It is a double membrane organelle

- Inner membrane

 Inner membrane is folded which folds are cristae. The cristae give the inner
membrane a large surface area to increase surface area to volume ratio. Thus, more
space for electron carriers and ATP synthase
- Matrix

 The matrix of mitochondrion is the site of link reaction and Krebs cycle. It contains
the enzymes needed for these reactions.
 Pyruvate present.
- Outer membrane

 Contains carrier for pyruvate or reduced NAD (NADH)

- Intermembrane space

 It has high concentration of H+ because protons are transported across the inner
membrane from the matrix.
 H+ passes through the space through ATP synthase (chemisosmosis).

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
- Takes place in the cytoplasm
- Only carries out substrate-linked phosphorylation
- If there is no / very little oxygen inside a mitochondrion, there is nothing to accept the
electrons at the end. ETC stops working and no ATP is formed by carrier in the chain to
accept hydrogens from reduced NAD and reduced FAD (remain reduced). The Krebs cycle
stops running, because there is no oxidised NAD or FAD to enable dehydrogenation steps to
take place.

ETHANOL FERMENTATION
- Ethanal is the hydrogen acceptor. Reduced by receiving hydrogen from reduced NAD
- Ethanol cannot be further metabolized; it is a waste product
Outline the process.
1. Glucose is converted to pyruvate (3C) by glycolysis.
2. Reduced NAD transfers its hydrogen to ethanal to form ethanol
3. Pyruvate is decarboxylated to ethanal. (Removing CO2)
4. Ethanal is reduced to ethanol by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and H from
reduction of NAD  NADH.
5. NAD is regenerated so glycolysis can continue.
- Not efficient because:

 Ethanol is toxic
 Reaction is irreversible
 Remaining chemical
potential energy in
ethanol is waste.
LACTATE FERMENTATION
- Pyruvate (3C) acts as the H acceptor, receive H from NADH
Outline the process.
1. Glucose is converted to pyruvate by glycolysis.
2. Pyruvate is converted to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and H from
reduction of NAD  NADH.
3. NAD is regenerated.

- Not efficient because:

 Lactate is toxic
 Causes drop in pH / acidic

RESPIRATORY SUBSTRATES
- When lipids are respired, pairs of carbon atoms are removed and fed directly into the Krebs
cycle.
- When amino acids are respired, they are first converted into pyruvate or acetyl coenzyme
A, and move to Krebs cycle.

- Lipids have a much greater energy density than carbohydrate or protein. This is because
they contain a greater proportion of hydrogen atoms in their molecules.

RESPIRATORY QUOTIENTS
- The ratio of the volume carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen used.