Stage 2: Pyruvate oxidation (link reaction)

In order to oxidize to pyruvate, which is the product of glycolysis and enter the next
pathway,
it must undergo several changes to become acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). Acetyl
CoA is a
molecule that is further converted to oxaloacetate, which enters the citric acid cycle
(Krebs
cycle). The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA is a three-step process (Figure
3.31). Step
1. A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate, releasing a molecule of carbon
dioxide into the
surrounding medium. (Note: carbon dioxide is one carbon attached to two oxygen
atoms and
is one of the major end products of cellular respiration). Step 2. The hydroxyethyl group
is
oxidized to an acetyl group, and the electrons are picked up by NAD+, forming NADH (the
reduced
form of NAD+). The high- energy electrons from NADH will be used later by the cell to
generate ATP
for energy. Step 3. The enzyme-bound acetyl group is transferred to CoA, producing a
molecule of
acetyl CoA. This molecule of acetyl CoA is then further converted to be used in the next
pathway of
metabolism, or the citric acid cy

he overall reaction: 2pyruvate + 2NAD+ + 2 CoA --> 2 acetyl-CoA + 2NADH + 2H+

+
2CO2. The Acetyl-coA molecules enter the Kreb cycle, NADH goes to the electron
transport
chain to produce ATP. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cell as a waste product. The
protons
(2H+) stay in the matrix.

Stage 3: Kreb cycle

The Krebs cycle itself actually begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon
molecule
called OAA (oxaloacetate) (Figure 32). This produces citric acid, which has six
carbon atoms.
This is why the Krebs cycle is also called the citric acid cycle. After citric acid forms,
it goes
through a series of reactions that release energy. The energy is captured in molecules
of
NADH, ATP, and FADH2, another energy-carrying compound. Carbon dioxide is also
released as a waste product of these reactions. The final step of the Krebs cycle
regenerates
OAA, the molecule that began the Krebs cycle. This molecule is needed for the next
turn
through the cycle. Two turns are needed because glycolysis produces two pyruvate
molecules
when it splits glucose.
Sawirka crebs cycle
Stage 4: Oxidative phosphorylation
It is the process in which ATP is formed as a result of the transfer of electrons from
NADH or FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron carriers. This process, which takes
place in mitochondria,
is the major source of ATP in aerobic organisms.
Oxidative phosphorylation generates 26 out of the 30 molecules of ATP that are
formed when glucose is completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O.
The three major steps in oxidative phosphorylation are
(a) oxidation-reduction reactions
involving electron transfers between specialized proteins embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane;
(b) the generation of a proton (H+) gradient across the inner mitochondrial
membrane (which occurs simultaneously with step (a)); and
(c) the synthesis of ATP using
energy from the spontaneous diffusion of electrons down the proton gradient
generated in step

Mechanism
Mechanism suggests that the transfer of electrons through the electron transport chain
causes
protons to be translocated (pumped out) from the mitochondrial matrix to the
intermembrane
134 | M o E , E T H I O P I ABIOLOGY GRADE 12 UNIT 3: ENERGY
TRANSFORMATION
STUDENT TEXTBOOK FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
space at the three sites of ATP production (i.e. it acts as a proton pump) resulting in
an
electrochemical potential difference across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
The electrical potential difference is due to the accumulation of the positively charged
hydrogen ions outside the membrane, whereas the chemical potential difference is due
to the
difference in pH when it is more acidic outside the membrane. This electrochemical
potential
difference drives (forces) ATP synthase to generate ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate.
Figure 3.33. Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
The energy budget of one glucose molecule
As from one glucose molecule, two pyruvate molecules are formed so that two cycles
will be
formed for the complete breakdown. So, the total yield will be 6 NADH, 2FADH2,
and 2
GTP.

.
Fermentation
A.
What happens in the anaerobic pathway?
In the process of glycolysis, a net profit of two ATP was produced, two NAD+ were
reduced
to two NADH + H+, and glucose was split into two pyruvate molecules. When
oxygen is not
present, pyruvate will undergo a process called fermentation. In the process of
fermentation,
the NADH + H+ from glycolysis will be recycled back to NAD+ so that glycolysis
can
continue. In the process of glycolysis, NAD+ is reduced to form NADH + H+. If
NAD+ is not
present, glycolysis will not be able to continue. During aerobic respiration, the NADH
formed
in the glycolysis will be oxidized to reform NAD+ for use in glycolysis again. When
oxygen
is not present or if an organism is not able to undergo aerobic respiration, pyruvate
will undergo a process called fermentation. Fermentation does not require oxygen and
is therefore
anaerobic. Fermentation will replenish NAD+ from the NADH + H+ produced in
glycolysis.

1. The ATP molecule is sometimes described as:

A). A phosphorylated nitrogenous base.
B). A phosphorylated nucleotide.
C). A glycosated nucleotide.
D). A glycosated nitrogenous base
2. ATP is formed from:
A). AMP and Pi,
B). ADP and AMP
C). ADP and P
D). AMP and A.
3. Examples of processes that requir ATP include:
A). Simple diffusion and active transport
B). Active transport and facilitated diffusion
C). Conduction of nerve impulses, osmosis
D). Active transport, and protein synthesis
4. The ATP synthase molecule produces ATP when:
A). Electrons turn the rotor to activate sites in the catalytic knob.
B). Hydrogen ions spin the catalytic knob.
C). Electrons spin the catalytic knob.
D). Hydrogen ions turn the rotor to activate sites in the catalytic knob
5. ATP is an ideal energy transfer molecule in cells because it:
A). Releases energy in small amounts.
B).Releases energy quickly.
C). Can move freely in, but not escape from, the cell.
D). All of the above BIOLOGY GRADE 12 UNIT 3: ENERGY
TRANSFORMATION
STUDENT TEXTBOOK FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
6. Which one of the following does not take place during the Krebs cycle?
A).O phosphorylation
B). Substrate-level phosphorylation
C). Electron transport
D). The link reaction
7. In fermentation:
A). Oxidative phosphorylation does not take place
B). Substrate-level phosphorylation does take place
C). NAD is reduced in glycolysis
D). All of the above
8. Which of the following statements about mitochondria is NOT true?
A). The carrier molecules of the electron transfer chain are found on the inner
mitochondrial membranes
B). The reactions of the Krebs cycle take place inside the mitochondria
C). All of the ATP needed by the cell is made in the mitochondria
D). Much of the ATP needed by the cell is made in the mitochondria.
9. In the electron transport chain, electrons move:
A). From the lumen of the mitochondrion to the intermembrane space
B). From the inter-membrane space to the lumen of the mitochondrion
C).Through ATP synthase
D). Along a series of electron carriers
10. Oxidative phosphorylation includes:
A). The electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
B). The electron transport chain and the Krebs cycle
C). The Krebs cycle and chemiosmosis
D). None of these
11. In the Krebs cycle:
A). Some ATP is made by oxidative phosphorylation
B). The four-carbon compound oxaloacetate is regenerated.
C). ATP is used
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143BIOLOGY GRADE 12 STUDENT TEXTBOOK

D). The six-carbon compound citrate is split into two three- carbon compounds
12. When compared to aerobic respiration, fermentation of glucose by yeast:
A). Yields less ATP per molecule of glucose.
B). Produces lactate.
C). Produces more CO2.
D). None of the above
13. Which one of the following statements about aerobic respiration is correct?
A). Glycolysis takes place in the matrix of the mitochondrion.
B). Carrier molecules of the electron transport chain exist on the outer membrane of
the
mitochondrion.
C). A high concentration of hydrogen ions builds up in the matrix of the
mitochondrion.
D).The Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondrion.
15. In a respirometer…
A). The amount of oxygen used by the organism is replaced with an equal amount of
carbon dioxide.
B). the carbon dioxide given off is absorbed by potassium hydroxide.
C). The breathing rate of an organism is measured.
D). We measure the uptake of oxygen by an organism
15. Which one of the following occur in both aerobic respiration and fermentation in
mammals:
A). Substrate-level phosphorylation.
B). Chemiosmosis.
C). Link reaction.
D). Decarboxylation