RESPIRATION

This has FOUR stages

1) GLYCOLYSIS – this occurs in the

CYTOPLASM of the cell and does not
require OXYGEN. It involves enzyme
controlled reactions where GLUCOSE
is oxidised and split into two three
carbon molecules of PYRUVATE. Some
ATP is made. No carbon is lost;

2) THE LINK REACTION – this occurs in

the MATRIX of a MITOCHONDRION
and does require OXYGEN. It involves
the conversion of PYRUVATE to
ACETYL CO-ENZYME A (acetyl CoA)
involving an enzyme controlled
reaction. No ATP is made but
CARBON DIOXIDE is lost via
DECARBOXYLATION;

3) KREBS CYCLE – this also occurs in the

MATRIX of a MITOCHONDRION and
requires OXYGEN. In Kreb’s cycle
 each acetyl CoA molecule combines
with a 4 C compound to produce a 6 C
compound. This 6C compound is then
converted back to the original 4 C
compound in a step wise cyclic series
of enzyme catalysed reactions. Some
ATP is made and some more CARBON
DIOXIDE is lost
(DECARBOXYLATION);

4) ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN –

this occurs on the INNER
MITOCHONDRIAL ENVELOPE
(CRISTAE) of a MITOCHONDRION
and requires OXYGEN. Here REDOX
reactions occur and lots of ATP is
synthesised and eventually also
WATER;

In respiration there are hydrogen carrier

molecules also known as CO-ENZYMES
(namely NAD and FAD) which collect two
hydrogen atoms in the enzyme reactions of
glycolysis, the link reaction and kreb`s
cycle. This is necessary to prevent the
hydrogen atoms ionising in the cell affecting
pH. Once the hydrogen atoms/ions are
collected by the co-enzymes they become
REDUCED and the molecules are known as
reduced NAD and reduced FAD
respectively, i.e..

NAD + 2 hydrogen atoms/ions  reduced

NAD
FAD + 2hydrogen atoms/ions  reduced
FAD

Removing the hydrogen’s also involves the

release of electrons and this occurs in the
electron transport chain. This releases
energy in the synthesis of lots of ATP.

The Chemiosmotic Hypothesis

As redox reactions occur along the

chain of electron carrier proteins, the
reduced coenzymes are re-oxidised
back to NAD and FAD respectively. As
energy is released as this happens,
hydrogen ions are forced against a
concentration gradient from the
mitochondrial matrix to the space
between the two membranes using
protein pumps in the membranes.
Eventually these hydrogen ions flow
back into the matrix through protein
channels in the ATP synthase molecules
in the membrane. As the ions flow
down this gradient energy is released
to synthesise ATP from ADP and Pi.

As a result of the electron transport

system, hydrogen ions become
concentrated in the intermembrane
space. These concentrated ions
contain lots of trapped potential
energy much like a dam. The enzyme
ATP synthase is able to use the
energy of this osmotic gradient to
produce ATP as the hydrogen ions
move under osmotic pressure through
the enzyme back into the matrix of
the mitochondrion.
Oxygen is the final electron
acceptor. The low-energy electrons
that emerge from the electron
transport system are taken up by O2.
The negatively charged oxygen
molecules take up protons from the
medium and form water (2H+ + 2e- +
1/2 O2 --> H2O).