Cell Respiration

Glycloysis, Link Reaction, Krebs Cycle and

Electron Transport Chain
Overview of Energy in Living Things
 Introduction to Cellular Respiration
 Cellular Respiration - is a metabolic process used to obtain
energy from organic compounds, to replace ATP’s
 This process can run under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Aerobic conditions yield more ATP.
 Cellular respiration is a catabolic pathway, breaking down
organic molecules like glucose and so releasing energy.
 Cellular respiration occurs in the cytoplasm and the
mitochondria of cells.
 4 main steps: Glycolysis, the Link Reaction, the Krebs
Cycle, and the ETC (electron transport chain)
Goal of Cell Respiration is ATP. Why???
The 4 Steps of Cellular Respiration
 Another Brief Introduction ….. 1
 Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm. It breaks glucose (C6) into
two molecules of pyruvate (C3). Some ATP is synthesised.
 Link Reaction carries the products of glycolysis into the
mitochondria
 Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. It degrades
citrate (C6) to C4 compounds, releasing carbon dioxide. Some
ATP is synthesised.
 These processes also transfer electrons from substrates to
electron carriers and on to the Electron Transport Chain
(ETC). (Also known as chemiosmosis.)
 Another Brief Introduction ….. contd
 The high energy electrons move along carriers in the ETC until
they combine with oxygen and hydrogen ions to form water.
 As they move, energy is released which is used to pump H+
ions into the space between the two mitochondrial membranes.
 The H+ ions rapidly diffuse back through special protein
channels which are combined with the enzyme ATP synthase.
 This results in the formation of ATP via oxidative
phosphorylation, which produces 90% of all ATP.
 Ultimately 38 ATP molecules may be synthesised.
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

 A chemical reaction
which is coupled to the
synthesis of ATP.
 Substrate-level
phosphorylation
accounts for the small
amounts of ATP
produced in Glycolysis
and the Krebs Cycle.
Oxidative Phosphorylation

 Pumping of protons across

the membrane, powered by
electron transport.
 High amounts of ATP are
produced as the protons
return through the
membrane.
 Oxygen is the final electron
receptor, resulting in the
production of water.
 Step 1 Glycolysis
 During glycolysis, glucose, a 6 carbon sugar, is split into two, 3
carbon sugars.
 Glucose is the primary source of fuel for cellular respiration
though other substances can also be used, like protein, fats,
and nucleic acids. Most of these have primary functions and are
only used when energy from carbs is not available.
 All ten steps of glycolysis are catalyzed by specific enzymes.
 2 Phases of Glycolysis
 Activation phase: 2
ATP’s provide activation
energy by
phosphorylating glucose.
 Lysis phase: 4 ATP’s
are produced as the
phosphorylated glucose
is split into two C3’s.
 2 ATP and 2 NADH are
the net production from
one molecule of glucose.
End of Glycolysis
 Per molecule of glucose, the net yield of glycolysis is:
 2 ATP
 2 NADH
 2 C3 pyruvate molecules
 Glycolysis does not require the presence of oxygen.
 Now, two ways forward for the two C3 pyruvates:
 Transferred to the mitochondria in the Link Reaction, or
 Disposed of in fermentation to produce alcohol or lactate
Link reaction
When pyruvate enters the mitochondria several enzymes modify it into a C2 by
removing a carboxyl group as CO2. More NADH is also made. The C2 is attached
to Coenzyme A, and carried into the Krebs Cycle as Acetyl Coenzyme A.
 The Krebs Cycle

 Krebs cycle is named after Hans Krebs who was mainly

responsible for discovering its pathways in the 1930’s.
 75% of the original energy in glucose is still present in the two
molecules of acetyl coenzyme A when they enter the Krebs
Cycle.
 With oxygen present, the acetyl coenzyme A enters the Krebs
cycle where enzymes oxidize the organic fuel to carbon dioxide.
 Krebs Cycle
 Acetyl Co-enzyme A, is
reacted with a C4 to produce
a C6 (citrate).
 This is then catabolised back
to C4 compounds with the
release of two CO2
molecules, H’s and one ATP.
 Remember that there are two
turns of the cycle for the initial
one glucose molecule.
 Krebs Cycle
 Each of the two cycles
from one molecule of
glucose produces one
ATP by substrate-level
phosphorylation, three
NADH + H+ and one
FADH2 and two CO2’s.
 Krebs cycling produces
large quantities of electron
carriers.
 Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
 So far only 4 of the 38 ATP have been produced, by
substrate level phosphorylation.
 The remaining will be produced by the ETC.
 The majority of the ATP produced comes from the energy
carried in the electrons of NADH (and FADH2) that were
produced by the Krebs Cycle - 6 NADH and 2 FADH2.
 The energy in these electrons is used in the ETC to shift H+
ions and power the synthesis of ATP.
 There are thousands of ETC’s found in each of the 100’s of
mitochondria, depending on the cell type.
 Electrons drop in energy as they pass down the ETC.
 Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
 Electrons carried by NADH are
transferred to the first of a
sequence of electron carriers I, II,
II and IV of the ETC in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
 The electrons carried by FADH2
are added later in the chain.
 As the high energy electrons
move down the ETC, small
‘packets’ of energy are released.
 This energy is used to pump H+
ions out across the membrane.
 Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
 ETC makes no ATP directly. Its function is to allow a controlled
release of energy which is used to pump H+ ions out across the inner
membrane of the mitochondria.
 This creates a high concentration gradient of H+ ions in the space
between the two mitochondrial membranes.
 The H+’s flow back through the inner membrane, through channel
proteins associated with the enzyme ATP synthase.
 ATP Synthase is then responsible for generating large quantities of
ATP from ADP and P, using the energy from the flowing H ions.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
 Fermentation
 Glycolysis produces a small amount of ATP, without the need
for oxygen. This ATP may be sufficient for the cell’s needs.
 The products of glycolysis, pyruvate molecules, are highly
toxic and need to be removed. This is fermentation.
 Two types of fermentation:
 lactate
 alcohol
 NADH+ gets recycled by use of an organic hydrogen acceptor
like lactate or ethanol.
 Both ethanol and lactate are also toxic but less so than
pyruvate. Both can be quite easily metabolised.
 Alcohol Fermentation
 Pyruvate is
converted to ethanol
in two steps.
 Alcohol fermentation
by yeast is used in
brewing and
winemaking.
 The CO2 is used in
baking.
 Lactic Acid Fermentation
 Pyruvate is reduced directly
by NADH to form lactate.
 Lactate fermentation of some
fungi and bacteria is
commercialised to make
cheese and yogurt.
 In humans, lactate may be
converted back to pyruvate
and enter the Krebs cycle, or
be converted back to glucose
in the liver.
Glycolysis and cell respiration may use different
substrates

Respiratory metabolism
is extraordinarily
versatile and adaptable,
and enables different
diets to be multi-
functional.
 Control of Cell Respiration
 Regulated by supply and
demand.
 If ATP levels drop, inhibitors are
removed and respiratory
metabolism speeds up.
 An excess of ATP leads to
inhibition of respiratory
metabolism.
 Several poisons, such as
cyanide, work by inhibiting
respiratory enzymes.
Review