CELLULAR

RESPIRATION
 2 TYPES OF CELLULAR
RESPIRATION

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

• glucose is completely • the absence of oxygen,
oxidised in the presence the reaction produces a
of oxygen into carbon limited amount of ATP
dioxide and water. from breakdown of
glucose/ glycogen without
entering electron
transport chain.
 ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate

• ATP is a universal form of energy

• It consists of a base adenine, a pentose sugar
ribose, combined with three phosphate groups.
• Hydrolysis of ATP
• Produced ADP (adenosine diphosphate) + Pi
(inorganic phosphate) and energy is released.

Hydrolysis
ATP synthase

ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + 30.6kJ

ATPase per molecule
 Phosphorylation
▪ Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate
(PO4) group to a protein or other organic molecule.
▪ 3 types of phosphorylation:
1. Substrate level phosphorylation
2. Oxidative phosphorylation
3. Photophosphorylation
 1. Substrate Level
Phosphorylation
▪ An enzyme transfer a
phosphate group
from an organic
molecule (substrate)
to ADP to form ATP
 2. Oxidative
Phosphorylation
▪ The formation of ATP from ADP by using energy
from a series of redox reaction in ETC.
▪ Take place in inner membrane of mitochondria
(ETC process)
 3. Photophosphorylation

▪ The formation of ATP

from ADP by proton-
motive force
generated across the
thylakoid membrane
of chloroplast in
plants.
▪ Occurs during light-
dependent reaction of
photosynthesis
 NAD +
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
▪ Organic, non-protein molecule.
▪ Made up of two nucleotide, linked by phosphate
group.
 The role of NAD+ in Respiration
▪ NAD+ function as coenzyme to carryout
oxidation/ reduction reaction.
▪ NAD+ act as hydrogen acceptor, that remove
hydrogen atom from the substrate.
▪ NAD+ is required in cellular respiration.
▪ NAD+ is reduced to NADH and the substrates
become oxidised.
 AEROBIC RESPIRATION
▪ Aerobic respiration occurs in living cells in the
presence of oxygen.
▪ There are 4 main stages in aerobic respiration:
1. Glycolysis
2. Link Reaction
3. The Krebs Cycle
4. Electron Transport Chain
 1. GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis is the breakdown of the glucose (6C)
molecule in a series of enzyme catalyzed reactions
into 2 molecules of pyruvate (3C).

• The process takes place in

the cytoplasm of cells
• does not require O2.
• There is a net production of
2 ATP molecules per molecule
of glucose.
 STEP 1
▪ Glucose undergo phosphorylation forming
glucose 6-phosphate.
▪ By using enzyme hexokinase.
▪ The glucose molecules is phosphorylated by
receiving a high energy phosphate from
hydrolysis of ATP to ADP.
 STEP 2
▪ Glucose-6-phosphate is rearranged to
become it’s isomer fructose-6-phosphate.
 STEP 3
▪ Frutose-6-phosphate undergoes
phosphorylation forming fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate.
▪ The addition of another phosphate group is from
hydrolysis of ATP to ADP.
 STEP 4
▪ Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate splits/breaks into
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) and
dihydroxyacetonephosphate (DHAP)
▪ By using enzyme aldose.

STEP 5
▪ DHAP is unstable,
thus quickly
rearranges to form
another G3P molecule
▪ so the net result is
two G3P molecules.
 STEP 6
▪ G3P undergoes oxidation and phosphorylation
forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.

▪ Oxidation of G3P
removes hydrogen
atoms and NAD+ is
reduced to become
NADH
▪ An inorganic phosphate
is attach to the
substrate produce 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate.
 STEP 7
▪ 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate undergoes substrate
level phosphorylation forming 3-
phosphoglycerate.

▪ One phosphate from each

1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
is transferred to ADP to
form ATP.
 STEP 8
▪ 3-phosphoglycerate is rearranged to form
2-phosphoglycerate.

STEP 9
▪ 2-phosphoglycerate
remove water molecules
forming phosphoenol-
pyruvate (PEP)
 STEP 10
▪ PEP undergoes substrate level
phosphorylation forming pyruvates.

▪ The second phosphate is

transferred to ADP form
ATP
SUMMARY
 2. Link Reaction
Or oxidative decarboxylation

•Aerobic respiration takes place when O2 is available.

•Pyruvate easily enters the matrix of the mitochondria.
 2. Link Reaction
▪ Pyruvate (3C) formed at the end of glycolysis is
decarboxylated (removal of CO2)
▪ & is oxidised (the removal of hydrogen
atoms) to form 2-carbon acetate (2C).
▪ The acetate combines with coenzyme A (Co A)
to form 2-carbon acetyl coenzyme A (Acetyl-
CoA).

▪ Acetyl-CoA the
enter Kreb Cycle.
 3. Krebs Cycle
▪ Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
STEP 1: • Acetyl CoA (2C) combines with
oxaloacetate (4C) in a condensation
reaction to form citrate (6C).
• A coenzyme (CoA) is released.

STEP 2: • Citrate rearranges by the removal

of a water molecule & the addition of
water to form its isomer isocitrate
(6C)

STEP 3: • Isocitrate (6C) is oxidised and

decarboxylated to form α-
ketoglutarate (5C)
• CO2 is release and NAD+ is reduced
to form NADH.
STEP 5: • Second oxidative-decarboxylation
of α-ketoglutarate takes place and
joins to coenzyme A.
• This produces succinyl CoA (4C),
CO2, and NADH.

STEP 6: • Substrate level phosphorylation

take place.
• Succinyl CoA is converted to
succinate (4C)
• The energy released is used for
phosphorylation of GDP forming GTP.
• GTP transfer its phosphate group to
ADP forming ATP
STEP 7: • Succinate (4C) is oxidised to
fumarate (4C).
• FAD reduced to form FADH 2.

STEP 8: • Fumarate becomes hydrated by

addition of water is then converted
to malate (4C).

STEP 9: • Malate is oxidised regenerating

oxaloacetate (4C)
• NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
• Oxaloacetate can be used to combine
with acetyl Co A & the cycle is
repeated.
 SUMMARY:

• In this cyclic process, decarboxylation takes place

twice, dehydrogenation takes place 4 times &
formation of GTP from ADP & phosphate once.
• During the dehydrogenation process, 3 times
NAD+ & one time FAD are used as H acceptors
forming NADH + H+ & FADH2 respectively.
• From one Krebs Cycle; 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 & one
GTP are produced.
• One glucose molecule produces 2 molecules of
acetyl CoA.
• The cycle is turned twice for each glucose
molecule broken down
4. Oxidative Phosphorylation

• oxidative phosphorylation includes:

1. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
transport & pumping of protons (H+), which
create an H+ gradient across the membrane
2. Chemiosmosis
ATP synthesis powered by flow of H+ back
across the membrane
• This process occur in the inner membrane of
mitochondria/cristae.
 ETC
▪ ETC is a chain of electron acceptor embedded in
the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
▪ High energy electron removed from respiratory
intermediates are carried by NADH & FADH2 to
inner mitochondrial membrane.
▪ The folding of the inner membrane to form cristae
increases its surface area, providing space for
thousands of copies of the chain in each
mitochondrion.
▪ During electron transport along the chain, electron
carriers alternate between reduced and oxidized
states as they accept and donate electrons.
▪ ETC chain consists of 4 protein complex of
electron carrier + 2 mobile protein:

1. NAD Dehydrogenase / flavoprotein

2. Succinate Dehydrogenase
3. Cytochrome b complex
4. Cytochrome c complex

5. Ubiquinone
6. Cytochrome C
 I: NAD dehydrogenase
▪ Complex I is responsible
for removing two
electrons from NADH
▪ and transferring them to
the electron carrier,
ubiquinone
▪ beginning the production
of a proton gradient
II: Succinate dehydrogenase
▪ Complex II removes
electrons from succinate
and transfers them to
ubiquinone via FADH2.
▪ Complex II does not
contribute to the proton
gradient

III. Cytochrome b complex IV. Cytochrome c complex

▪ Complex III accepts the ▪ Cytochrome C passes the

electrons and passed electrons to complex IV.
them to cytochrome C. ▪ Electrons are passed from
one carrier to another.
▪ FADH2 from Krebs Cycle and NADH from
glycolysis and Krebs Cycle enters the ETC.
▪ NADH / FADH2 are oxidised transfer electrons
to ETC.
▪ This reaction is by redox reaction.
▪ As they pass along the electron transport
chain, they lose much of their energy & the
energy released is used to synthesise ATP.
▪ The energy is used to pump H+/protons from
the matrix of mitochondria to intermembrane
space.
▪ The pumping of H+ creates electrochemical
proton gradient / proton motive force.
▪ Electrons are passed from one carrier to
another carrier.
▪ The molecule gaining an electron is reduced
and the carrier molecule losing the electron is
oxidised.
▪ The final electron acceptor at the end of
transport chain is oxygen.
▪ Complex IV transfer the electrons to oxygen
which combines with hydrogen ions to
form water.
▪ Another source of electron for electron
transport chain is FADH2, the other reduced
product of the Krebs cycle.
▪ FADH2 adds its electron to the electron
transport chain at a lower energy level than
NADH does (at Complex II).
▪ Consequently, the electron transport chain
provides less energy for ATP synthesis when
the electron donor is FADH2.
▪ 3 ATP molecules are produced for every NADH
that enters the electron transport chain.
▪ 2 ATP molecules for every FADH2 that enters
the electron transport chain.
 Chemiosmosis
▪ The pumping of hydrogen ions (H+) from the
matrix into the intermembrane space builds
up a transmembrane electro-chemical
protons (H+) gradient
▪ Proton/ H+ from intermembrane space
flows back to the matrix through ATP
synthase down its electrochemical gradient
(known as achemiosmosis)
▪ ADP is phosphorylated to form ATP.
 Shuttle System
• The number of ATP produced per molecule of glucose in
aerobic respiration depends on type of shuttle used.
• Shuttle system is used to transport electrons from
cytosolic NADH into mitochondria.
• There are two types of shuttle system (depending on
types of cell)
• Shuttle malate
• Shuttle glycerophosphate
 Shuttle Malate
▪ The inner membrane of mitochondria does not
have a transporter protein to bring NADH from
cytosol of cytoplasm into mitochondria matrix.
▪ Shuttle malate is used to transfers the electrons
from NADH through the inner mitochondrial
membrane to the NAD+ molecule in the matrix.
▪ Used in cell of liver, heart, and kidney
▪ These electrons are transferred to the ETC in the
inner mitochondrial membrane, and up to produce
3 ATP per pair of electron.
▪ Thus, using shuttle malate will produce 38 ATP
molecules from complete oxidation of one glucose
molecule.
 Shuttle Glycerol-phosphate
▪ In skeletal muscle, brain & some other types of
cells, another type of shuttle operates (glycerol-
phosphate shuttle).
▪ This shuttle requires more energy than the shuttle
in liver, kidney & heart cell, the electron are at a
lower energy level when they enter the ETC.
▪ These shuttle use electrons from cytosol NADH to
produces FADH2 within the inner membrane. The
electrons are then fed directly into ubiquinone &
so generate a maximum of 2 ATP molecules per
pair of electrons.
▪ This is why the number of ATPs produced by
aerobic respiration of 1 molecule of glucose in
skeletal muscle cells is 36 rather than 38.
 Anaerobic Respiration

• Anaerobic respiration is a type of respiration

whereby in the absence of oxygen, a catabolic
reaction produces a limited amount of ATP
from breakdown of glucose without entering
electron transport chain.
• Anaerobic respiration is also
called fermentation
• Organisms that obtain energy from the
breakdown of sugar through anaerobic
respiration are known as anaerobes.
• During anaerobic respiration, glucose only
breaks down into pyruvic acid when
undergoing glycolysis. The pyruvic acid formed
is not converted into acetyl Co A for entry into
Krebs cycle as in aerobic respiration.
• Instead, the pyruvic acid is converted into
ethanol or lactic acid.
 2 types of fermentation

Alcohol fermentation Lactate fermentation

- Fermentation - Fermentation converts

converts glucose into glucose into lactic acid
ethanol & CO2 in plant (lactate) in animal cells
cells, fungi cells (eg; - Muscle cells, bacteria,
yeast ) & bacteria and fungi
 Alcohol Fermentation
• Alcoholic fermentation is carried out by plants and
yeast in the absence of O2.
• They have enzymes that decarboxylate pyruvate,
releasing CO2 & forming a two-carbon compound called
acetaldehyde.
• NADH produced during glycolysis transfers hydrogen
atoms to acetaldehyde, reducing it to form ethyl
alcohol (ethanol)
• NAD+ regenerated to be reused.
 Lactate Fermentation
• In this alternative pathway, NADH produced during
glycolysis transfers hydrogen atoms to pyruvate,
reducing it to form lactate
• NAD+ is regenerated.
• If the amount of O2 delivered to muscle cells is
insufficient to support aerobic respiration, the cells shift
briefly to lactate fermentation.
• Lactate accumulation in the muscle causes
fatigue & muscle cramps.
• The O2 that is required to break down the lactate
is known as the oxygen debt & is repaid by deep
& rapid breathing at the end of strenuous
activity.
• The lactate formed is removed to other tissues and
dealt with by one of two mechanisms :
• it is converted back to pyruvate.
• The pyruvate then proceeds to be further
oxidised, finally producing a large amount of ATP.
• it is converted back to glucose in the liver.
• The process of conversion of lactate to glucose is
called gluconeogenesis, uses some of the
reactions of glycolysis (but in the reverse
direction) and some reactions unique to this
pathway to re-synthesise glucose.
• Both alcohol fermentation & lactate
fermentation are highly inefficient because the
fuel is only partially oxidised.
• This is because a considerable quantity of
energy still remains trapped in the ethanol or
lactic acid molecules.
• A net profit of only 2 ATPs is produced by the
fermentation of one molecules of glucose,
compared with up to 36-38 ATPs when O2 is
available.
 Importance of Fermentation in Industry.
a) In the process of baking cakes & bread
In this process, the flour dough is mixed with yeast.
The CO2 gas produced from the fermentation process
causes the dough to rise & give soft cake or bread texture
when it is baked in the oven.

Yeast
b) In the process of beer & wine manufacture
During the manufacture of beer,
the enzyme (diastase) in the
malt, rice or corn convert the
starch in the cereal into maltose.
The yeast mixture is then added
to allow fermentation to take
place.
During fermentation, the
enzyme maltase converts
maltose into glucose.
Glucose is then converted by the
enzyme zymase into ethanol &
CO2.
Wine is made by the
fermentation of yeast on grape
or other fruit sugars.
 c) In the process of making Cheese &
Yoghurt (Dairy Industry).
• Some bacteria can respire
anaerobically e.g. Lactobacillus
bulgaricus which converts milk
sugar and lactose to lactic acid.

• The presence of lactid acid

lowers the pH in milk causing
milk to coagulate forming
curds or yoghurt.

• Other species of Lactobacillus

are used to make cheese and
butter.
The bacteria Propionibacterium
species produces the flavor and
large holes in some cheeses
 Local fermented foods
• Tempe is one of the most
popular fermented foods
in Indonesia, Malaysia and
Singapore.
• It is traditionally prepared
with soy beans or a certain
variety of peanut fermented
with mold, Rhizopus spp.
• The cultured soybeans or
nuts are bound together by a
thick white mycelium of new
mold-growth, to form a cake.
• Another examples of local fermented
foods are tapai, dadih, budu and
cincalok.

◼ Ragi (yeast cake)is used by

crushing it, and then mixing
the powder with cooked,
cooled ingredients such as
glutinous rice (for tapai
making).
◼ The mixture is fermented for a
particular length of time,
depending on the product
being prepared.
 Fermentation Aerobic repiration
Similarities Similarities
Produce 2ATP via glycolysis to oxidise Produce 2ATP via glycolysis to oxidise
glucose to pyruvate. glucose to pyruvate.

Differences
NAD+ is an oxidizing agent that accept
electron from substrate.
Last electron acceptor from NADH is an
organic molecule such as pyruvate (acid
lactic fermentation) or acetyldehyde
(alcohol fermentation)
Less ATP produce (2ATP)
Only glycolysis is involved
Does not involve oxygen/anaerobic
process.
Occur only in cytoplasm
End products is lactate in animal or ethanol
jasmin
Differences
NAD+ and FAD are oxidizing agents that
accept electron from substrate
Last electron acceptor from NADH and
FADH2 is oxygen.
More ATP are produced 36/ 38ATP.
Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron
transport chain.
Involve oxygen/aerobic process
Occur in cytoplasm and mitochondria.
End product are CO2 and H2O. 81

in plant.