Module 6

Plant Physiology and Development

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
FOOD PRODUCTION | BUILDING GLUCOSE
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other photosynthetic organisms utilize and convert light energy and
inputs of water and carbon dioxide into chemical energy in the form of sugar. It is a series of chemical reaction that occurs inside
the Chloroplast, a special cell organelle which contains pigments called Chlorophyl that captures light energy from the sun.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS FORMULA

STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPLAST
• _______________ – membrane network inside the chloroplast
which is embedded which protein complexes necessary for
Light Dependent Reactions to occur
• ___________ – stacks of thylakoid connected by the
lamellae (plural grana)
• ________________ – fluid that surround the grana where Light
Independent Reactions occur

MAJOR PHOTOSYNTHETIC REACTIONS

mlsolidarIos 1
Light Dependent Reaction
Light Dependent Reactions are the first major steps in the process of converting light energy into biochemical
energy in the form sugar. This reaction occurs in the thylakoid membrane inside the chloroplast and produces oxygen, ATP
and NAPH which will be needed in the Light Independent Reactions.

• Photosystem II (PS II / P680) - captures light energy and breaks down water into oxygen and hydrogen ions
• Plastoquinone (PQ) - carries electrons from PS II to Cyt B6-f
• Cytochrome B6-f Complex (Cyt B6f) - links PS II and PS I; excitation of Cyt B6-f directs hydrogen ions inside the
thylakoid lumen
• Plastocyanin (PC) - carries electrons from Cyt B6-f to PS I
• Photosystem I (PS I / P700) - captures more light energy for the process to continue
• Ferredoxin (FD) - carries electrons from PS I to NADP Reductase
• NADP Reductase - receives electron from PS I via FD and reduces NADP ion to NADP
• ATP Synthase - pumps out excess hydrogen ions out of the thylakoid lumen due to the concentration gradient
which also results to the formation of ATP

Light Independent Reaction

Light Dependent Reactions, also known as the Calvin Cycle, are the last series of processes that converts light
energy into glucose. These reactions occur at the stroma which is surrounding the grana. Products from the Light
Dependent Reaction such as ATP and NADPH is needed for these reactions to proceed.

• Carbon Fixation
• 3 ribulose-1,5-biphosphate (RuBP) → RuBisCo → 6 3-phophoglyceric acid (3-PGA)
• PGA Reduction
• 6 3-phophoglyceric acid (3-PGA) → PGA Kinase → 6 1,3-biphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG)
• 6 1,3-biphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) → G3P Dehydrogenase → 6 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
o 1 6 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) → GLUCOSE
o 5 6 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) → 3 ribulose-1,5-biphosphate (RuBP)
• RuBP Regeneration
• 5 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) → 3 ribulose-1,5-biphosphate (RuBP)

mlsolidarIos 2
SUMMARY OF THE OVERALL REACTION
• The products produced after Light Independent Reaction were Oxygen, ATP and NADPH.
• ATP and NADPH produced by the Light Independent Reaction, together with the Carbon Dioxide harvested by the
stomata from the air, were needed to proceed with Light Independent reactions.
• After two cycles of the Light Independent Reaction, one molecule of glucose was produced.

ABBREVIATIONS
• ADP – Adenosine Diphosphate
• ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate
• BPG – Biphosphoglycerate
• G3P – Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate
• NADP – Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
• NADPH – reduced form of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
• RuBP – Ribulose-1,5-Biphosphate
• PGA – Phophoglyceric Acid
• RuBisCo – Ribulose-1,5-Biphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
ENERGY PRODUCTION | BREAKING GLUCOSE

Cellular Respiration is the process by which cells breaks up glucose to form cellular energy in the form of ATP. It is a series
of chemical reaction that occurs inside the Mitochondria, particularly inside the Mitochondrial Matrix and the Intermembrane
Space.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION FORMULA

mlsolidarIos 3
TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration is a four-stage process which occurs with the presence of oxygen and can produce large
amount of energy together with water and carbon dioxide as by products.

• Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a ten-step process of breaking down glucose into pyruvate/pyruvic acid which will be utilized in
the Krebs Cycle. This stage happens in the cytoplasm of the cell. The first half of the process is the investment stage
wherein 2 ATP is used to breakdown glucose into fructose. Meanwhile, the second half of the process produces 2
Pyruvate/Pyruvic Acid which will be further oxidized into Acetyl CoA for Krebs Cycle, and 4 ATP and 2 NADH which
will be used during the Electron Transport Chain part of the Oxidative Phosphorylation. Since glycolysis occurs in the
cytoplasm, each NADH produced need 1 ATP to enter the cytoplasm. This will leave a net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.

• Pyruvate Oxidation
Pyruvate Oxidation is a process of converting 3-carbon molecule Pyruvate/Pyruvic Acid into a 2-carbon
molecule Acetyl attached to a Co-enzyme producing NADH

mlsolidarIos 4
 • Krebs Cycle
Krebs Cycle is a series of chemical reaction used by aerobic organisms to generate cellular energy in the
form of ATP.

1. Oxaloacetate (4-carbon) + Acetyl CoA (2-carbon) → Citrate/Citric Acid (6-carbon) → Isocitrate (6-carbon)
2. Isocitrate (6-carbon) → a-Ketoglutarate (5-carbon)
• Loss of 1 carbon as Carbon Dioxide, thus, this reaction will produce 1 Carbon Dioxide and 1 NADH which will
be used during the ETC
3. a-Ketoglutarate → Succinyl CoA (4-carbon)
• Loss of anther carbon as Carbon Dioxide, thus, this reaction will produce 1 Carbon Dioxide and 1 NADH which
will be used during the ETC
4. Succinyl CoA (4-carbon) → Succinate (4-carbon)
• Catalyzed by Succinyl CoA Synthetase which also converts GDP to GTP, which also yields ATP by losing one
phosphate group to ADP upon converting back to GDP
5. Succinate (4-carbon) → Fumarate (4-carbon)
• Catalyzed by Succinate Dehydrogenase which also convert FAD to FADH
6. Fumarate (4-carbon) → Malate (4-carbon)
• Addition of -OH group to fumarate to form malate thru hydrolysis
7. Malate (4-carbon) → Oxaloacetate (4-carbon)
• Produce 1 NADH which will be used during the ETC

• Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation is the combined process of Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis.
Electron Transport Chain is series of electron transfer from one complex to another with the aid of an electron
carrier, while Chemiosmosis is the transfer of hydrogen ions from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration with the help of a cellular protein/enzyme.

TOTAL NUMBER OF ATPS PRODUCED AFTER AEROBIC RESPIRATION

1. Glycolysis → _ ATP
2 NADH → _ ATP
– 2 ATP (needed to transfer NADH to mitochondria)
2. Pyruvate Oxidation 2 NADH → _ ATP
3. Krebs Cycle 1 Glucose → 2 Cycles→ 2 ATP
4. Oxidative Phosphorylation 6 NADH → 18 ATP
2 FADH → 4 ATP

mlsolidarIos 5
 Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration is a two-stage process of converting glucose to form energy without the use of oxygen
wherein Glycolysis acts as the only ATP extracting pathway followed by one or two other reactions which regenerates NAD
from NADH produced during Glycolysis. At the end of this process, only 2 ATP molecules will be produced.

• Lactic Acid Fermentation

In Lactic Acid Fermentation, NADH transfers electron directly to pyruvate/pyruvic acid, generating
lactate/lactic acid as the by-product.

• Alcohol/Ethanol Fermentation
Alcohol Fermentation is a two-step process of converting pyruvate to ethanol with the aid of yeast. In, the
first step carbon dioxide is releasing from removing a carboxyl group from the pyruvate yielding Acetaldehyde, then
NADH transfer electrons to the Acetaldehyde regenerating NAD and forming Ethanol as by-product.

TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT

CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membranes are made up two layers of phospholipids composed of a hydrophilic/lipophobic head and a
hydrophobic/lipophilic tail

mlsolidarIos 6
 ________________ is the movement of molecules across a semi-permeable membrane without the need for energy
expenditure. This is because molecules flow along the concentration gradient (from an area with high molecule concentration to
an area with low molecule concentration).
On the other hand, ________________ is the movement of molecules across a semi-permeable membrane with the
need for energy investment. This is because molecules flow against the concentration gradient (from an area with low
molecule concentration to an area with high molecule concentration).

TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Simple Diffusion
In simple diffusion, molecules should be small enough to pass the semi-permeable membrane without requiring
energy.

Facilitated Diffusion
In facilitated diffusion, larger molecules that could not pass through the semi-permeable membrane can utilized
transport proteins and channels.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane embedded with protein channels
called AQUAPORINS to achieve equilibrium. Movement of water through osmosis is affected by the amount of solutes dissolve
in it.
• Hypertonic Solution
Hypertonic solution is a solution with a higher solute concentration. Cells surrounded by this type of
solution tends to shrink (________________)
• Isotonic Solution
Isotonic solution is a solution with an equal amount solute concentration on either side of the cell
membrane. Cells surrounded by this type of solution is not affected.

• Hypotonic Solution
Hypotonic solution is a solution with a lower solute concentration. Cells surrounded by this type of solution
tends to swell (________________)

mlsolidarIos 7
TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Membrane Pumps
Membrane Pumps are carrier proteins that when activated by ATP moves substances from an area of low to high
concentration.

Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the process by which cells ingest large particles such as macromolecules and external fluids.
• Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis or ________________ is the ingestion of large particles and/or whole cells
• Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis or ________________ is the ingestion of extracellular solutes and/or fluids

Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the process by which cells release substances through a vesicle that transport it to the cell surface and
fuses with the cell membrane out.

mlsolidarIos 8
 TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
SHORT AND LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT

Short distance transport is the movement of substances between neighboring cells at a level of tissues and organs, while
Long distance transport is the mass movement of water and minerals absorbed by the roots and sugars manufactured by the
leaves to other parts of the plant.

TYPES OF SHORT-DISTANCE TRANSPORT

Transmembrane Pathway
In transmembrane pathway, water and minerals move across neighboring cells by passive diffusion through the cell
membrane and cell wall.

Apoplast Pathway
In apoplast pathway, water and minerals move across neighboring cells by passing through the cell walls until they
reach the endodermal cells. Water escapes the ___________________ of endodermal cells by rerouting, passing through the
cytoplasm and finally into the xylem tissues.

Symplast Pathway
In symplast pathway, water and minerals move between neighboring cells by passing across the cytoplasm until they
reach the xylem tissues. The continuum of cytoplasm between cells is joined by the channel called _____________________.

TYPES OF LONG-DISTANCE TRANSPORT

Translocation
Translocation is the transport of sugar manufactures by the leaves to other parts of the plant through the phloem cells
in either direction (up or down the plant). Cell sap moves from a SUGAR SOURCE (leaves) to a SUGAR SINK (roots, stems, fruits)
through the phloem

• The sugar source usually has a lower

concentration of the sap than the phloem
vessels, thus energy is needed for active
transport and pressure is created as the
sap is pushed from the source to the
phloem vessels.
• The pressure inside the phloem vessels
pushes the sap into the sink to relieve the
tension and as a result, water from the
xylem vessels diffuses into the phloem
vessels to restore the pressure.

mlsolidarIos 9
Transpiration
Transpiration is the transport of water and minerals absorbed by the roots to the leaves to be used for photosynthesis
through the xylem cells in an upward direction only. Water evaporates through the stomata of the leaves or the stems.
• Water is absorbed by the roots through osmosis to the xylem vessels.
• Evaporation water from the leaves causes a Transpiration Pull. This is because water has cohesive property,
water is pull up through the Transpiration Stream.
• Water is also needed for plant turgidity and to maintain its turgidity, water is drawn out of the xylem vessels to
replace water loss in the leaves, thus more water is pulled up through the xylem vessels.

Factors affecting Transpiration

o Light Intensity
The brighter the light, more photosynthesis, more water evaporates, the higher the transpiration rate.
o Temperature
The higher the temperature, more energy water particles could have, more water evaporate, the higher
the transpiration rate.
o Air Flow
The higher the air flow, lower concentration of water in the air, more water evaporates to balance the
concentration gradient, the higher the transpiration rate.
o Humidity
The higher the humidity, higher concentration of water in the air, less water evaporates, the lower the
transpiration rate.

end of module 6

mlsolidarIos 10