Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis can be divided into two stages as

1. Light dependent reaction – occurs in light only
2. Light independent reaction – occurs in light and dark both
• The products from light dependent reaction are used in the light independent
reaction.
(Fig A pg 11)

• Light dependent reaction is controlled by the light and the light independent
reaction is controlled by temperature- sensitive enzymes.
(Fig B pg 12)

• When a plant is exposed to alternating periods of light, more carbohydrates are

produced than when it is exposed to continuous light. In alternative light, it gives
time for the products from light dependent reaction to be used up in the light
independent reaction. In continuous light the products from light dependent
reaction get accumulated so fewer carbohydrates are produced.
 Light dependent stage (LDR)

• This occurs on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts.

• Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation composed of photons.

• When a photon hits on a chlorophyll molecule the electrons are excited, raised to a
higher energy level and leave it.
• These excited electrons are collected by electron acceptors and synthesise ATP.
• Synthesis of ATP can happen in one of the two processes.
1. Cyclic photophosphorilation
2. Non-cyclic phosphorylation
• Phosphorylation means adding a phosphate group to ADP. This can happen in many
ways. Eg: phtophosphorylation- using light energy to form ATP
Oxidative phosphorylation – using oxygen to produce ATP

Cyclic phosphorylation
When an electron gets excited in cyclic phosphorylation, it receives by PS 1 and produce
ATP. When the energy drops down the electron comes back to the chlorophyll as in a cycle.
(Fig C pg 12)
Non cyclic phosphorylation
In non cyclic phosphorylation both photosystem 1 and 2 are involved. When water
molecules are broken down, hydrogen ions are attached to NADP to produce reduced
NADP. ATP is also produced.
(Fig D pg 12)

1. Light hits on both PS 1 and PS 2 at the same time and the electrons get excited.
2. When one electron is excited from PS2 it goes through an electron transport chain,
producing ATP.
3. This electron enters PS1 to replace the lost electron.
4. The electron which got excited from PS 1 gets attached with the electron acceptor
NADP (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) to produce reduced NADP.
Reduced NADP is produced with the combination of a hydrogen ion which got
dissociated from water as well.
5. Water also breaks down using light energy and produce electrons, protons and
oxygen. This process is known as photolysis
6. The electrons from water splitting replace the lost electrons from PS2
7. At the end the two photosystems are again ready to get excited with a new photon.

• The resulted reduced NADP and ATP is directed to the light independent reaction.
• Photolysis produce hydroxyl ions and they get together to form water and oxygen.
• Four chlorophyll molecules regain electrons in the production of one molecule of
oxygen.
The light independent stage of photosynthesis(LIR)
• This stage occurs in the stroma.
• Light independent reaction consists of a series of reactions known as the calvin cycle.
(fig E pg 13)

1. Carbon dioxide combines with a 5-carbon compound ribulose bisphosphate (RUBP).

This process is known as carbon fixation.
2. This step is catalysed by the enzyme RUBISCO (ribulose biphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase). This enzyme is considered as the rate limiting enzyme in
photosysnthesis.
3. As a result of the combination of the RUBP and carbon dioxide a 6-carbon compound
is resulted. This compound is highly unstable and never been able to isolate.
4. This 6-carbon compound is separated into two molecules. One of glycerate 3-
phosphate (GP) and another 3-carbon compound.
5. GP is then converted into GALP. The hydrogen for this reaction is supplied by
reduced NADP and the energy comes from ATP.
6. Much of the GALP is converted back into RUBP.
7. Some 3-carbon is synthesised into glucose (6-carbon) or transferred directly into the
glycolysis pathway.
(fig F pg 14)
• RUBISCO can act as carboxylase(high concentrations of carbon dioxide) and
oxygenase(low concentrations of carbondioxide) both.
• RUBISCO can be considered as the most common protein on the Earth since it
makes about 30% of the total protein of a leaf.
• RUBISCO is very inefficient because it can’t distinguish between carbon-
oxygen double bonds and oxygen-oxygen double bonds. Therefore both
carbon dioxide and oxygen compete for the enzyme and this type of
ineffectiveness is known as competitive inhibition.
• When RUBISCO binds with oxygen, the complex still can bind with RuBP. It
produces 1GP and 1glycolate-2-phosphate. This glycolate-2-phosphate is
converted into GP using products of the Calvin cycle and ATP. During the
process it releases carbon dioxide. Produced carbon dioxide can then be
bound to RuBP to produce GP as in the normal Calvin Cycle. This process is
known as photorespiration as it uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
• Photorespiration wastes both carbon and energy. But RUBISCO is 80 times
attracted to carbon dioxide than to oxygen, so the waste is limited. Somehow
about 25% of the products of the Calvin Cycle are lost in photorespiration and
therefore the efficiency of photosynthesis in plants is about 75%. RUBISCO
got evolved in this way hence at the beginning of the Earth there was a very
little amount of oxygen.
• GALP is the primary end product of photosynthesis.
• Some of the GALP is used directly in cellular respiration. Out of the GALP
entered, some are converted into acetyl coenzyme A.
• Acetyl co A is used to synthesise the fatty acids needed for the production of
phospholipids for membranes.
• Most of the GALP produced in the Calvin Cycle is used to form glucose and it
is called gluconeogenesis.
• Compounds of photosynthesis are combined with nitrates from soil to form
building blocks of amino acids.
• Some compounds from the Calvin cycle can be bound with phosphates from
the soil to produce nucleic acids
Limiting factors in photosynthesis
• A limiting factor is a parameter that is needed for a reaction to progress that is
closest to its minimum value.

1. Light
Light intensity affects in the light-dependent reaction to excite electrons in the
chlorophyll. Both the light intensity and the wavelength of the light affect the rate
of photosynthesis since reduced NADP and ATP is directed from the light dependent
reaction to light independent reaction.

2. Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide concentration affects the rate of photosynthesis because the light
independent reaction cannot progress without a sufficient amount of it. (fig H pg16)

3. Temperature
Temperature affects the rate of photosynthesis hence throughout the process
enzymes are involved and those are highly specific to particular temperature ranges.
(fig I pg 16)

• To assess the rate of photosynthesis, aquatic plants are used because oxygen
bubbles can be observed unlike in land plants.
• The growth of a plant in an ecosystem is controlled by competition between plants
for the factors that can limit photosynthesis and growth.
• There are different types of photosynthesis as
o C3
o C4
o CAM
• C4 photosynthesis is more efficient than C3 photosynthesis over 200C.
• C4 plants lose less water in transpiration than C3 plants.
• C4 plants capture carbon dioxide from one cell and direct them to deeper cells to
reduce competition between carbon dioxide and oxygen for RUBISCO.
• Plant scientists re-engineer C3 plants to C4 specially staple food (rice,wheat,potato)
to have a higher yield as a solution to save the lives from hunger in countries getting
sunlight throughout the year. (fig A pg 18)