MRS NOR SYAHIDA ALIAHMAT

BASIC BIOLOGY

CELL RESPIRATION
OUTLINE
ATP
Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
 Glycolysis
 Reaction of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC)
 Kreb Cycle
 Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
 Chemiosmosis
Anaerobic Respiration
 Fermentation
ATP
 Is Cellular Energy Currency
 Through high-energy phosphate bonds, temporarily stores energy that a cell
uses for a wide variety of activities.
 serves as the energy currency utilized by the cell to perform its daily
activities.
 In reality, ATP is a special high-energy nucleotide composed of adenine, a
ribose sugar and three phosphate groups
ATP (cont)

 ATP is a high-energy biological molecule that breaks down to form

ADP and is used to power cellular activity, the reaction would be
categorized as exergonic- reaction release energy.
 The production of ATP from ADP and P requires a net input of
energy and would be categorized as endergonic- reaction consume
energy.
 RESPIRATION

Respiration is a process of metabolism concerned with the

breakdown of organic molecules to release energy is
exergonic or catabolic reaction
Fermentation is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs
without O2
Aerobic respiration consumes organic molecules and O
2
and yields ATP
Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration but
consumes compounds other than O2
Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic
respiration
Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumed
as fuel, it is helpful to trace cellular respiration with the
sugar glucose:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)

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The Principle of Redox

 Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are

called oxidation-reduction reactions, or redox reactions
• In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized
 In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is reduced (the amount
of positive charge is reduced)
becomes oxidized
(loses electron)

becomes reduced
(gains electron)

becomes oxidized
(loses electron)

becomes reduced
(gains electron)
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The electron donor is called the reducing agent
The electron receptor is called the oxidizing agent
Some redox reactions do not transfer electrons but change
the electron sharing in covalent bonds
An example is the reaction between methane and O
2

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 Reactants Products
becomes oxidized

becomes reduced

Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water

(reducing (oxidizing
agent) agent)
Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During Cellular
Respiration

During cellular respiration, the fuel (such as glucose) is

oxidized, and O2 is reduced
becomes oxidized
(loses electron)

becomes reduced
(gains electron)

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Energy in Living Organisms

Energy harvested from the breakdown of sugar is stored

in energy carrier molecules:
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2).
Aerobic Respiration
Is the oxidation of the organic compound that take place in
the metabolism of the cell in the presence of oxygen.
Also known as cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration has three stages:
Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of
pyruvate)
The citric acid cycle (completes the breakdown of glucose)
Electron transport chain /Oxidative phosphorylation
(accounts for most of the ATP synthesis)
Takes place in cytoplasm (glycolysis) and mitochondria
(citric acid cycle and electron transport chain)
Convert glucose into carbon dioxide and water
Oxidative phosphorylation
The process that generates most of the ATP is called
oxidative phosphorylation because it is powered by
redox reactions
Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% of the
ATP generated by cellular respiration
A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the
citric acid cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation
ATP from mitochondria

Stage 1
Glycolysis Stage 2
Krebs cycle
Stage 3
Electron
transport
chain
 Glycolysis
 Glucose (a six carbon sugar) is split into two molecules of a three-carbon sugar.
 occurs in the cytosol
 can occur with (cellular respiration) or without oxygen (fermentation/anaerobic
glycolysis).
• Has 10 steps of glycolysis:
• 7 steps REVERSIBLE
• 3 steps IRREVERSIBLE
 1 mol glucose yields
• 2 molecules of ATP
• 2 molecules of pyruvic acid (each has 3 carbon) (aerobic condition) or lactate
(anaerobic condition)
• 2 high energy electron carrying molecules of NADH
Stage 1 Sugar activation
 2 mols of ATP are consumed for each mol
of glucose
 Glucose is converted to fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate.
 Glucose is trapped inside the cell and at
the same time converted to an unstable
form that can be readily cleaved into 3-
carbon units.
Stage 2  Sugar cleavage
 Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved into
2 3-carbon units of glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate.
Stage 3 Sugar oxidation
 4 mols of ATP and 2 mols of NADH are
gained from each initial mol of glucose.
 This ATP is a result of substrate-level
phosphorylation
 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized
to pyruvate
NET GAIN FOR AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS

 Stage 1: Sugar activation (use -2 ATP for phosphorylation)

Hexokinase Phospho-hexose Phospho-
Glucokinase isomerase fructokinase
Glucose Glucose 6-P Fructose 6-P Fructose 1,6-bi- P
ATP ADP ATP ADP

 Stage 3: Sugar oxidation (formation of ATP)

1. Oxidation of Glyceraldehide-3-p to 1,3-bi-Phosphoglycerate.

Glyceraldehide-3-p + NAD+ +Pi

Glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase

1,3-bi-Phosphoglycerate+ NADH+ H+

*NADH presence of O2 will be oxidized in electron transport chain to produce 3 ATP

**1mol glucose oxidized 2NADH  produce 6 ATP
NET GAIN FOR AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS (CONT)
2. Conversion of 1,3- Biphosphoglycerate to 3 Phosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate kinase

1,3- Biphosphoglycerate 3 Phosphoglycerate

ADP ATP

**1mol glucose will produce 2ATP

3. Conversion of 2-Phosphoglycerate to pyruvate

Pyruvate
Enolase kinase
2-Phosphoglycerate Phosphoenolpyruvate pyruvate pyruvate

ADP ATP
**1mol glucose will produce 2ATP
Stage 1  -2ATP
Stage 3
 +6 ATP (from NADH oxidization)
 +4ATP

Total  8ATP

1 mol glucose will produce 2 mol of pyruvate

Net gain per mol glucose: +8ATP
Reaction of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
(PDC)

Before the citric acid cycle can begin

Pyruvate must first be converted to acetyl CoA, which links the
cycle to glycolysis
 The steps involved are
KREB CYCLE •Acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb Cycle when it is joined to
oxaloacetate by citrate synthase to produce citrate. This
process requires the input of water. Oxaloacetate is the
Citric
final metabolite of the Kreb Cycle and it joins again to start
Oxidative
Glycolysis
acid phosphorylation
cycle
the cycle over again, hence the name Kreb's Cycle. This is
known as the committed step
S CoA •Citrate is then converted into isocitrate by the enzyme
C O
CH 3
aconitase. This is accomplished by the removal and
Acetyl CoA addition of water to yield an isomer.
CoA SH
•Isocitrate is converted into alpha-ketogluterate by
NADH
+H +
O C COO
CH 21
–

COO HO –
isocitrate dehydrogenase. The byproducts of which are
2

NAD + COO – CH 2 COO NADH and CO2. –

8 Oxaloacetate HO C COO CH –

•Alpha-ketogluterate
2

COO – CH 2 2HC COO

Figure 9.12 –
is then converted into succinyl-
COO HO CH–
HO CH Malate
CH
Citrate COO CoA by alpha-ketogluterate dehydrogenase. NADH and
–
2
Isocitrate
COO –
CO2 are once again produced.
Citric CO
•Succinyl-CoA is then converted into succinate by
2

acid 3
7 NAD +
H2O
COO –
cycle
NADH
succynl-CoA synthetase which yields one ATP per
COO –

HC
CH
Fumarate CoA SH CH
+H
succinyl-CoA.
2
+

CH a-Ketoglutarate
COO –
C O
•Succinate converts into fumarate by way of the enzyme
2

4
6
COO –CoA SH COO – COO succinate dehydrogenase and [FAD] is reduced to [FADH 2]
–

CH 5 CH
FADH
which is a prosthetic group of succinate dehydrogenase.
2 2
2
CH CH CO 2

FAD COO
2 2
NAD +

Succinate
– C O
P S CoA i NADH
Succinate dehydrogenase is a direct part of the ETC. It is
GTP GDP Succinyl +H +
also known as electron carrier II.
CoA
ADP •Fumarate is then converted to malate by hydration with
ATP the use of fumerase.
ure 9.12 •Malate is converted into oxaloacetate by malate
dehydrogenase the byproducts of which are NADH.
PER TURN OF THE CYCLE..

ONE CoA is reused in the next link reaction

Oxaloacetate (OAA) is regenerated so it can be reused in the next Kreb

cycle

TWO carbon dioxide molecules are released as a waste product of

respiration

THREE reduced NAD and ONE reduced FAD coenzymes are made and
enter the electron transport chain

ONE molecule ATP is made per turn of the

cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation happens via the ELECTRON TRANSPORT

CHAIN
v

v
From this result, we got THREE forms of energy:

1. ATP; immediate cell usage

2. NADH Electron carriers that will

bring high energy to ETC

3. FADH2
Glycolysis and Cellular Respiration

NADH and FADH2 are oxidized and the energy

is used to produce ATP in
Electron Transport System
Electron transport chain

 Is a series of electron transporter embedded

in the inner mitochondria membrane;
close to the matrix
 also known as respiratory chain
 only in presence of O2 (aerobic respiration)

matrix

inter-
cristae membrane
space

inner outer
membrane mitochondrion membrane
 Components of Mitochondria
 Double membrane matrix

outer membrane : permeable to cristae

inter-
membrane
space
most metabolites inner outer
membrane mitochondrion membrane

inner membrane : highly selectively permeability

- The enzymes of the ETC are embedded in the inner

membrane
- cristae: increase the membrane area
Overview of Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
 shuttles electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen

 In the process, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the
intermembrane space and oxygen is reduced to form water (H2O)

How electrons are

transported through
the system ?
 Electron transport : The Mechanism

High-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed along the ETC
from one carrier protein to the next.
matrix

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Electron Transport

At the end of the chain, an enzyme combines these electrons with H+ ion
and O2 to form water.

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How the mechanism ??
Electron Transport

When 2 high-energy electrons move down the ETC, their energy is used to
move hydrogen ions (H+) across the membrane.

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Electron Transport

During electron transport, H+ ions build up in the intermembrane space, so it

is positively charged.

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Electron Transport

The other side of the membrane, from which those H+ ions are taken, is now
negatively charged.

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Electron Transport

The inner membranes of the mitochondria contain protein spheres called ATP
synthase.

ATP
synthase

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Electron Transport

As H+ ions escape through channels into these proteins, the ATP synthase spins.

Channel

ATP
synthase

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Electron Transport

As it rotates, the enzyme grabs a low-energy ADP, attaching a phosphate (Pi), forming
high-energy ATP.

Channel

ATP
synthase

ADPATP
+ Pi

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 An electrochemical gradient provides
the power to make ATP.
Glen Canyon Dam : It holds back enough water to supply
over 26 million families with water for a year !
Hi [H+], ++positive charge++
Low [H+], --negative charge--
• Imagine the H+ ions as water trapped
behind a tall dam.
•The fact that the water will tend to move
down can be used to do work
•The inner mitochondrial membrane is
like the wall of the dam with many
positively charged hydrogen ions trapped
behind it.
 Production of ATP by ATP synthase

Channel

 The ATP Synthase is the enzyme

used in this process. ATP
synthase
- one of the integral membrane protein
- turned on when the H+ ion
diffusing through it

ADPATP
+ Pi
 ADP combines with a phosphate
group (Pi) to form ATP.
Process is called :
CHEMIOSMOSIS
Chemiosmosis
 is the movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane

 More specifically, it relates to the generation of ATP by the movement of hydrogen

ions across a membrane during cellular respiration.

Osmosis is the process of diffusion

of water molecules across a selectively
permeable membrane.

Chemiosmosis is the process of

diffusion of ions (usually H+ ions, also
known as protons) across a selectively
permeable membrane.
Cont..
Conclusion: ELECTRONS are transported to meet
up with OXYGEN at the end of the chain

The overall ETC reaction is :

4H+ + 4 e+ + O2  H2O + energy (ATP)

Notice that: 4 H ions, 4 electrons

and oxygen molecules react

to produce

Water & energy

(H2O + ATP)
The complete breakdown of glucose through cellular respiration

The complete breakdown of

glucose through cellular
respiration, including
glycolysis, results in the
production of 38 molecules of
ATP

38
 Conclusion

1. Protons (H+) are translocated across the membrane

(from the matrix to the intermembrane space)

2. Electrons are transported along the membrane through

a series of protein carriers

3. Oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor, combining

with electrons and H+ ions to produce water

The overall electron chain transport reaction is :

4H+ + 4e+ + O2  H2O + energy
Summary: Oxidative Phosphorylation

 process of: production of ATP through the

chemiosmosis in mitochondria
 acts like the photosynthesis (sunlight energy)

Glycolysis  Pyruvate Oxidation  The Krebs Cycle

 Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis
ANAEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION
During fermentation in eukaryotic cells, pyruvate will
either be converted into:
1. Ethanol through Alcoholic Fermentation
2. Lactic Acid through Lactic Acid Fermentation
 Alcoholic Fermentation
Ethanol:
produced when yeast cells ferment
A source of ethyl alcohol (beer and wine)

Glucose ----------> 2 pyruvate ---------> ethanol + CO 2

fermentation
glycolysis

2 ATP
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Lactic Acid
 Produced by cells of multicellular organisms during O deficient times
2
(exercise)
 Lactic acid causes the “burn” felt in muscle cells
 Blood circulation moves excess lactic acid
glycolysis fermentation
Glucose ----------> 2 pyruvate ---------> lactic acid

2 ATP
NET GAIN FOR ANAEROBIC
GLYCOLYSIS
Lactate dehydrogenase

Pyruvate Lactic acid

NADH +H+ NAD+

 2 ATP are consumed for conversion of glucose to fructose

1,6 P
 4 ATP are produced during conversion of glyceraldehyde 3-
P to pyruvate

Net gain per mol glucose: 4ATP-2ATP= 2 ATP