COMPRESSED NOTES CHAPTER 5: CELLULAR RESPIRATION SB025

5.1 (a) NEEDS FOR ENERGY AND THE ROLE OF RESPIRATION IN LIVING ORGANISMS

Introduction to the importance of Cellular respiration

 Living things require a continual supply of energy in order to carry out life processes such as movement,
active transport, cell division and others.
 “Fuel” for cellular respiration in living organism is carbohydrates, fats & protein
 Fats are excellent energy source because they contain rich hydrogen
 Transfer of hydrogen in redox (oxidation-reduction) reaction releases energy
 Cellular respiration is a catabolic process that converts chemical energy stored in organic molecules
(glucose) into energy (ATP)
 ATP is a form of chemical energy that is readily to be used by the cell
 The sources of energy in cellular respiration are glucose (major), fat & protein.

What is Adenosine Triphosphate, ATP?

 ATP is a nucleotide in which adenosine (ribose sugar + adenine base) molecule bonded to three phosphates
molecules.

 ATP has unstable phosphate bonds. The energy is trapped in these two high energy bonds.
 When energy is needed, ATP is broken down/ hydrolyzed into ADP and Pi. These yields about 7.3
kcal mol-1 of energy. (ATP ADP + Pi + energy)
 Energy will be transferred to cell which requires energy (to carry out cellular activities)
 ATP can be re-synthesized from an ADP by re-attaching a phosphate group to ADP, through
phosphorylation process

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(b) TYPE OF ATP PRODUCTION IN AEROBIC RESPIRATION

What is Phosphorylation?
A process of adding phosphate to an organic molecule. i.e ADP is phosphorylated to ATP

i. Substrate level phosphorylation ii. Oxidative phosphorylation

 The formation of ATP when an enzyme directly
transferring a phosphate group to ADP from a
substrate.
 Smaller amount of ATP produced, which is 4
ATPs via glycolysis & the Krebs cycle (2 ATPs).
 Does NOT involve ATP synthase enzyme
 Occur in glycolysis and Krebs cycle
 The production of ATP via chemiosmosis using
energy derived from the redox reactions of
electron transport chain (involving transfer of
electron)
 Large amount of ATP (34 ATP) are produced per
molecule of glucose.
 Involve ATP synthase enzyme
 Occur during electron transport chain and
chemiosmosis

(c) PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Redox reaction (involve oxidation and reduction) Other process involved

Reduction Oxidation
A reaction that: A reaction that: Decarboxylation :
 gain electron and  loss electron and hydrogen A reaction in which a molecule of CO2 is
hydrogen atoms  gain oxygen removed from a molecule/ substrate
 loss oxygen  acts as reducing agent E.g.: Pyruvate is converted to acetyl
 acts as oxidizing agent  E.g. Malate is oxidized to CoA
 E.g. Reducing NAD +
form oxaloacetate when 2 of
accept 2H to form its hydrogen are
+
NADH + H transferred to NAD+ ,
forming NADH + H+

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5.2 AEROBIC RESPIRATION AND FERMENTATION AND ITS REQUIREMENTS

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Glycolysis
(Oxidation of glucose in cytoplasm)
Aerobic (O2 present)
Fermentation (O2 absent)
Link Reaction

Krebs Cycle
Lactic Acid Ethanol fermentation
Electron Transport fermentation (Animal) (Plant)
Chain & Chemiosmosis

5.2.1 AEROBICRESPIRATION

(a) STAGES IN AEROBIC RESPIRATION

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
 Definition: The complete oxidation of glucose to CO2 , H2O and ATP in the presence of oxygen
 C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 + 6H2O + 38 ADP + 38 P  6CO2 + 12H2O + 38 ATP + 420 Kcal
 In eukaryotic cells, this process occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria
 Four stages of aerobic respiration:
Stages Location Occurs in the presence/ absence of O2
Glycolysis Cytosol / cytoplasm Occurs regardless of presence /absence of O2
Link reaction Mitochondrial matrix Occurs in the PRESENCE of O2
Krebs cycle Mitochondrial matrix Occurs in the PRESENCE of O2
Electron transport chain Inner mitochondrial Occurs in the PRESENCE of O2
and chemiosmosis membrane/ cristae

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(b) GLYCOLYSIS

 The breakdown of one molecule of glucose in a series of enzyme-catalysed reactions to form two
molecules of pyruvate, accompanied by the production of ATP
 Splitting of sugar = Splitting of ONE glucose (6C) to TWO pyruvate (3C) molecules
 First stage of cellular respiration that occurs in the cytoplasm / cytosol
 Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen
 Glycolysis pathway:
 Consists of 10 steps
 Each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme
 ATP is generated by substrate-level phosphorylation
 Can be divided these ten steps into TWO phases:
Energy investment phase (Step 1-5) Energy payoff phase (Step 6-10)
- Use up energy (ATP) - Produce energy (ATP)
- Convert a molecule of glucose (6C) into - Convert the TWO molecules of
TWO molecules of G3P / PGAL (3C) Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (3C) into
*G3P : Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate TWO molecules of pyruvate (3C)
*PGAL : Phosphoglyceraldehyde
 Products of glycolysis for ONE molecule of glucose:
 2 pyruvate (3C)
 2 NADH + 2H+
 4 ATP but net are 2 ATP

NAD+
 Is a type of coenzyme
 Acts as oxidizing agent
Important  NAD+ is reduced to form NADH + H+
Concept
NADH
 Reduced coenzyme
 NADH is oxidize to form NAD+
 Acts as reducing agent
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(b) GLYCOLYSIS PATHWAY :( FROM 1 GLUCOSE TO 2 PYRUVATE)

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i. ENERGY INVESTMENT (ATP USE):

1. Phosphorylation: Phosphorylation of glucose
Hexokinase by ATP, forming glucose-6-phosphate,
catalyzed by hexokinase.

2. Isomerization: Rearrangement of glucose-6-

phosphate to its isomer fructose-6-phosphate

3. Phosphorylation: Second phosphorylation

using ATP, occur to form fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate, catalyzed by
Phosphofructokinase
phosphofructokinase.

4. Cleavage: The unstable 6C molecule is split

into two molecules of 3C, which is:
 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).

5. Isomerization: DHAP converts to its isomer

G3P. Thus, the result is 2 molecules of G3P
(3C).

i. ENERGY PAYOFF (ATP PRODUCED):

6. Oxidation and phosphorylation: G3P is
oxidized (-e) causes NAD+ is reduced to
NADH + H+. Energy released (from redox
reaction) is used for phosphorylation (receive
inorganic phosphate to increase energy level
of substance) forming 1, 3-
bisphosphoglycerate (3C).

7. Substrate-level phosphorylation: One

phosphate group from1, 3-
bisphosphoglycerate is transferred to ADP
forming ATP. Thus the remaining substrate is
called 3-phosphoglycerate.(3C)

8. Isomerization: Next, the 3-phosphoglycerate

is rearranged to form 2-phosphoglycerate
(3C).

Products of glycolysis for ONE glucose: 9. Dehydration: Removal of H2O produces

 2 NADH + 2H+ phospoenolpyruvate (PEP, 3C)
 Net are 2 ATP
10. Substrate-level phosphorylation: Finally,
HOW TO REMEMBER each PEP molecule
THE transfers its phosphate
GLYCOLYSIS? 10 words
group to ADP forming ATP. PEP is converted
to pyruvate.(3C).
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(c) LINK REACTION (CONVERSION OF PYRUVATE TO ACETYL COENZYME A)

 Connects glycolysis to the Krebs Cycle
 Steps in which 2 pyruvate from glycolysis (in
cytosol of cell) enters mitochondria as acetyl-
CoA
 Also known as oxidative decarboxylation
 3 major steps;
i. Pyruvate is decarboxylated (remove CO2)
ii. The remaining 2 carbon fragments is
oxidised to form acetate, while NAD+ is
reduced to NADH+ + H+
iii. Finally, coenzyme A attached to the
acetate to form acetyl-CoA.
 The products for ONE glucose molecules (2 pyruvate) = 2 Acetyl-CoA, 2 CO2 and 2 NADH + 2H+

(d) KREBS CYCLE

What is Krebs Cycle?
 Also known as Citric acid cycle or Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria
 To provide electron in the form of NADH and FADH2 that used in the ETC. Eight steps of Krebs
cycle:
1. Acetyl-CoA removes CoA group, remaining acetyl
(2C) combines with oxaloacetate, OAA (4C) to
form citrate (6C).
2. Isomerization process. Citrate then rearranged to
its isomer isocitrate by removal and addition of 1
water molecule.
3. Oxidative decarboxylation process.
Isocitrate loses a molecule of CO2 forming a 5C
molecule (decarboxylation). The remaining 5C is
oxidized into α-ketoglutarate (5C), by transferring
their electrons and H+ to NAD+. NAD+ is reduced
to NADH + H+.
4. Oxidative decarboxylation process.
α-ketoglutarate loses a molecule of CO2 forming a
4C molecule (decarboxylation). The remaining 4C
is oxidized before combines with Coenzyme A, to
form succinyl CoA (4C). NAD+ is reduced to
NADH + H+.
5. ATP produced by substrate level
phosphorylation. Succinyl CoA releases the CoA
and displaced by Pi. The Pi transferred to GDP,
forming GTP, then GTP transfer the Pi to ADP to
form ATP. Succinyl CoA changed to succinate
(4C)
6. Oxidation. Succinate oxidized to fumarate (4C),
FAD reduced to FADH2
7. Hydration (addition of water molecule). Fumarate
rearranged into malate (4C) by adding H2O
molecule.
8. Oxidation. Malate is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to
NADH + H+, regenerating oxaloacetate(4C)
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States the products of Krebs Cycle for each glucose molecule (1 glucose = 2 pyruvate =2 Acetyl CoA)
 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP, 4 CO2
Describe how many ATP is produced via substrate-level phosphorylation in Krebs cycle?
 2 ATP are produced in step 5 (when succinyl CoA converted to succinate)
HOW TO REMEMBER THE KREBS CYCLE? 8 words
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(e) OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION: ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC) AND

CHEMIOSMOSIS
What happen during oxidative phosphorylation?
 So far, glycolysis and Krebs cycle produce only 4 ATP molecules per glucose through substrate-level
phosphorylation
 NADH and FADH2 from glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle responsible for most of the energy
extracted from the glucose.
 So, those NADH and FADH2 act as electron donor/reducing agent/ electron carrier in (ETC).
 The electrons (with high energy) in NADH and FADH2 must be transported along the ETC. The energy
released by the ETC is used to synthesize ATP by chemiosmosis.
 Production of ATP by these processes is called oxidative phosphorylation.

i. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) ii. Chemiosmosis

 ETC is a collection of protein molecules that act as electron carriers.  Chemiosmosis is a process
 Embedded in the inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondria. that use energy stored in the
 It used to transfer electron from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen form of proton (H+) gradient
through REDOX reactions to synthesize ATP across the inner mitochondrial
 Components of ETC: membrane, to produce ATP
 3 protein complexes from ADP and Pi.
(i) NADH dehydrogenase (complex I)  Proton (H+) gradient across
(ii) Cytochrome c reductase (complex III) membrane is also known as
(iii)Cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) proton motif force.
 2 mobile electron carriers  Chemiosmosis use ATP
(iv) Ubiquinone/ Coenzyme Q (CoQ) synthase.
(v) Cytochrome c (Cyt c)

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(v) (iii)
(i)
(iv) (ii)

DESCRIBE THE ELECTRON PATHWAY IN ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN;

 NADH was produced during glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle.
 Electrons carried by NADH are transferred to the NADH dehydrogenase (complex I). Complex I is reduced
while NADH oxidized to NAD+ .
 Next, Complex I passes the electrons to ubiquinone/ CoQ.
 Ubiquinone/ CoQ move freely in inner membrane of mitochondria. It will pass the e- from complex I to
cytochrome c reductase (complex II)
 Cytochrome c reductase accepts electrons from ubiquinone. Complex II return to its oxidized form as it passes
electrons to cytochrome c (Cyt c).
 Cyt. c then passes electrons to cytochrome c oxidase (complex III)
 Finally, the electron accepted by complex III passed to the oxygen to form water. 2e- + 2H+ + ½ O2 H2O
 As protein complexes accept and donate electrons, they pump protons from mitochondrial matrix into the
intermembrane space by using the ENERGY from ELECTRON FLOW /redox reaction
 For 1 molecule of NADH, proton pump occur at complex I, II and III.
 FADH2 release its electrons via Ubiquinone and so results in fewer protons being pumped. For 1 molecule of
FADH2, proton pump occur at complex II and III only. So, we consider that FADH2 enter the ETC at a lower
energy level than NADH.
 This proton pump results in the accumulation of high concentration of protons / H+ in the inter membrane
space.
 Chemical energy originally harvested from food is now transformed into a proton-motive force, a gradient of
proton/ H+ across the membrane as a result of proton pump.

DESCRIBE CHEMIOSMOSIS;
 The inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to protons (H+). Intermembrane space has greater H+
concentration than the matrix, creating a concentration gradient difference.
 The proton gradient cause the proton (H+) flow back into the matrix, through ATP synthase. This activates
ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP into ATP.
 Each NADH generates 3 ATP (activates three proton pump) but FADH2 generates only 2 ATP (activates
only 2 proton pump).
Complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose in active cells (e.g. liver cell, heart cell, kidney cells) will
produce total 38 ATP
Pathway Substrate-Level Phosphorylation Oxidative Total ATP
Phosphorylation

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Glycolysis in cytoplasm 2 ATP 2 NADH X 3 = 6 ATP 8

Link Reaction 0 ATP 2 NADH X 3 = 6 ATP 6
Krebs Cycle in the 2 ATP 6 NADH X 3 = 18 ATP 24
matrix of mitochondria 2 FADH2 X 2 = 4 ATP
Total 4 ATP 34 ATP 38 AT
P

5.3 FERMENTATION AND ITS APPLICATION

 The INCOMPLETE oxidation of glucose to CO2, ATP and ethanol (*in plant cells) or lactate and ATP
(*in animal cells) in the absence of oxygen
 ATP is only produced by substrate-level phosphorylation via glycolysis in cytoplasm followed by the
reduction of pyruvate by NADH
→ Resulting in the production of only 2 ATP
→ NADH is oxidized to regenerate NAD+
→ NAD+ as oxidizing agent while NADH as reducing agent
 Fermentation is important to regenerate NAD+ (so that glycolysis can continue to take place). Two types of
fermentation:

Alcohol fermentation(*in plant cells) Lactic acid fermentation(*in animal cells)

Glucose (C6H12O6) 2 ethanol (C2H5OH) + 2 Glucose (C6H12O6) 2 lactate (C3H6O3) +

CO2 + 2 ATP
 Pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps.
i) Pyruvate (3C) is decarboxylated into
acetaldehyde (2C). CO2 released.
ii) Acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol.
Application of alcoholic fermentation;
 Alcohol fermentation by yeast (fungi) is used in
brewing and wine making.
 Also used in baking. The CO2 bubbles generated
by baker's yeast during alcohol fermentation allow
bread to rise.
 Traditional delicacies such as tempe, dadih, budu,
cincalok etc.
2 ATP
 Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form
lactate.
 No CO2 produced.
Application involving lactic acid fermentation:
 Muscle cells switch from aerobic respiration to
lactic acid fermentation to generate ATP when O2
is scarce during active sports activities. The
lactate, may cause muscle fatigue, but then
converted back to pyruvate in the liver when
oxygen is available
 Lactic acid fermentation by certain bacteria (e.g.
Lactobacillus sp.) is used in the dairy industry to
make cheese and yogurt.

Comparison between lactate fermentation and alcohol fermentation

Similarities:
 Both occur in cytoplasm/ cytosol and both occur in the absence of oxygen
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Differences:
Lactate fermentation
Occur in animal cell / muscle cell
Produce lactic acid (lactate) and ATP
Final electron acceptor is pyruvate
Alcohol fermentation
Occurs in plant cell/ yeast cell
Produce ethanol, CO2 and ATP
Final electron acceptor is acetaldehyde / ethanal

Comparison between fermentation and aerobic respiration

Similarities:
 Both are cellular respiration/ Both pathways involved glycolysis / Both use glucose as respiratory
substrate/ NAD+ is the oxidizing agent that accept electron
Differences:
Fermentation Aerobic respiration
Products are CO2, ATP, and ethanol // lactic acid Products are CO2, ATP and H2O.
2 ATP produce per glucose through substrate level 38 ATP produce per glucose through substrate level
phosphorylation phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation
Does not require oxygen Require oxygen
Occurs in the cytoplasm / cytosol only Occurs in the cytoplasm / cytosol and mitochondria.
The oxidation of glucose is incomplete The oxidation of glucose is complete
Involve glycolysis only Involve glycolysis , Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation
END OF TOPIC

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