4.1.

5 Mechanism of photosynthesis

 Dark Reactions
 Light independent reactions do not require direct energy of sunlight, I may occur
during the day time and are called dark reactions
 Melvin Calvin in 1950 investigated the sequence of photosynthesis, therefore,
the series of reactions taking place are called Calvin-Benson Cycle
 Dark reaction occurs in the stroma of chloroplast
 Calvin-Benson cycle is composed of three stages:
 1. Carbon fixation
 2. Reduction
 3. Regeneration of RuBP
4.1.5 Mechanism of photosynthesis

 1. Carbon fixation
 A 5-carbon sugar called Ribulose Biphsphate (RuBP) already present in stroma reacts
with CO2 to form 6 carbon compound
 This 6 carbon compound is unstable, so it splits into two molecules of 3-carbon
compound called Phosphoglycerate (PGA)
 This process is accelerated by an enzyme called Rubisco (Ribolose biohosphate
carboxylase) which is the most common protein in the nature
 Since the carbon that was part of CO2 is now part of an organic molecule so this
reaction is called Carbon Fixation

RuBP + CO2 -------------→ short lived 6 carbon compund

6 C compound -------------→ 2PGA
4.1.5 Mechanism of photosynthesis

 2. Reduction
 PGA formed in the previous step (Carbon Fixation) is reduced into
phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) in this step
 The products of the light reaction i.e. NADPH and ATP are used in this process
 Each molecule of PGA receives energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH of light
reaction to form PGAL and water
 ADP and NADP return back to light reaction

PGA + ATP + NADPH -------------→ PGAL + ADP + P + NADP

4.1.5 Mechanism of photosynthesis

 3. Regeneration of RuBP
 In this stage, RuBP is regenerated to continue the cycle
 Out of every six PGAL molecules formed in the previous step, one molecule leaves the
cycle to be used by plant for making glucose. The other five PGAL molecules are recycled
to regenerate 3 molecules of five carbon RuBP

 Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate is an organic substance that is involved in

photosynthesis and helps in accepting CO2 and restarting the cycle
4.2 Respiration
4.2 Respiration- Introduction

 Respiration is defined as oxidation-reduction processes which occur inside the

living cells during which organic food is broken down and energy is released.
 Respiration has two types:
 Aerobic Respiration
 Anaerobic Respiration

 Aerobic Respiration (Cellular respiration)

 In this type of respiration, free oxygen is used to break down organic food to CO2
and H20 and stored energy is released
 C6H12O6 + 6O2 -------------→ 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP
4.2.1 Aerobic respiration

 Complete breakdown of glucose molecules takes place in following three steps:

 1. Glycolysis
 2. Kreb’s Cycle
 3. Respiratory Electron Transport Chain
 1. Glycolysis
 Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose, 6-C molecule, in two molecule of
pyruvate (3-C molecule) and a net gain of two ATP molecules.
 Glycolysis completes in two phases:
 A. Preparatory phase
 B. Oxidative Phase
 4.2.1 Aerobic respiration

 A. Preparatory phase
 Preparatory phase is phosphorylation of glucose by two ATP molecule. Phosphorylation is the chemical
addition of a phosphoryl group to an organic molecule
 ATP transfers energy and phosphate to glucose forming glucose 6-phosphate and itself convers to ADP
 Glucose-6 Phosphate is isomerised into fructose -6 phosphate
 Fructose -6 phosphate reacts with another ATP molecule forming fructose 1-6 biophosphate and ADP
 Fructose 1-6 biophosphate splits into 3 Carbon phospho-glyceraldehyde (PGAL) and dihydroxy acetone
phosphate (DAP)
 With the above splitting this phase is completed
 4.2.1 Aerobic respiration

 B. Oxidative Phase
 In oxidative phase first two Hydrogen atoms are removed from 3-PGAL and transferred to a molecule of NAD, a co-enzyme.
So, PGAL is oxidized to PGA and NAD is reduced to NADH. The reaction is accompanied by the addition of phosphate group.
The resultant molecules are 1-3 biphosphoglycerate
2PGAL + 2Pi -------------→ 2BPGA + 2H2
2NAD + 2H2 -------------→ 2NADH2
 Each molecule of 1-3 biphosphoglycerate transfers high energy phosphate to ADP forming ATP molecule and itself changes to
3 phosphoglycerate
1-3 biphosphoglycerate + ADP -------------→ 3 phosphoglycerate + ATP
In the next step 3 phosphoglycerate converts into 2- phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) with the elimination of one water molecule
2PGA -------------→ 2PEP + 2H2O
In the last step , phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) reacts with ADP forming an ATP and pyruvic acid.
2PEP + 2ADP -------------→ 2 pyruvic acid and 2ATP
4.2.1 Aerobic respiration

 Conversation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA (linked Reaction)

 Pyruvate does not enter the Kreb’s cycle directly. Before entering the Kreb’s cycle
pyruvate is oxidized to a carbon dioxide and a two carbon molecule called acetyl
group.
 This molecule attaches to coenzyme A (CoA) forming a group called Acetyl CoA
 During the process hydrogen is removed from the pyruvate which is taken by
NAD and is converted to NADH
 Acetyl –CoA enters the Kreb’s cycle
 4.2.1 Aerobic respiration

2. Kreb’s Cycle (Tricarboxylic acid Cycle (TCA)

 In Kerb’s cycle the metabolic pathway takes the course of cycle where Acetyl CoA is
completely oxidized into two molecules of CO2, and Hydrogen atoms are removed which
reduces NAD and FAD to NADH and FADH2 respectively
3. Respiratory Electron transport Chain
 In the last step, oxidation of reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2 produced in glycolysis and
Kreb’s cycle by molecular oxygen takes place
 The pairs of hydrogen atoms released from glucose during glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle of
aerobic respiration are not received directly by oxygen but pass long a series of electrons
carriers which form respiratory electron transport chain
 The final electron acceptor at the end of the chain is oxygen forming water
4.2.1 i) Metabolism of proteins and lipids

 Cells mostly degrade glucose to release energy but cells can oxidize and degrade
other food molecules such as proteins and fats to release energy
 Proteins are broken down into amino acids. Amino group is removed from amino
acids forming ammonia and the remaining molecules enter the Kreb’s cycle
 Fat is hydrolysed into glycerol and three fatty acids.
 Glycerol is converted to PGAL which enters the process of respiration into
glycolytic pathway
 Each fatty acid is degraded into two carbon fragments acetyl groups which enters
the Kreb’s cycle
4.2.2 Anaerobic respiration
4.2.2 Anaerobic respiration

 The incomplete breakdown of glucose without the utilization of oxygen is called

anaerobic respiration
 Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) takes place in the absence of oxygen
 The process of fermentation takes place in two steps:
 Glycolysis
 Reduction of pyruvate into alcohol or to lactate

 Lactic acid fermentation occurs in muscle cells of humans and in many microorganisms.
In the first step glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid which is basically glycolysis. In
the second step, pyruvic acid is reduced by NADH2 into lactic acid. Here compared to 36
ATP molecules of aerobic process, only 2 ATP molecules are produced
4.2.2 Anaerobic respiration

 In alcoholic fermentation is carried out my microorganisms

 This process also completes in two steps:
 The first process is the same glycolysis. In the second step, NADH2 gives
hydrogen to pyruvic acid which is converted into ethyl alcohol and CO2
 In alcohol fermentation, 2 ATP molecules are produced
4.2.3 Photorespiration

 Photorespiration is defined as the process in which oxygen combines with ribulose

biphospate (RuBP) in the presence of sunlight and CO2
 Photosynthesis takes place with the optimum concentration of the requirements for
normal functioning. If one of the requirements is present in less concentration than the
optimum, the process is affected
 In dark reaction, CO2 combines with RuBP to form PGA molecules. This reaction takes
place in the presence of an enzyme called ribulose biphosphate carboxylase. This
reaction depends on the concentration of CO2 and O2.
 If CO2 concentration is more, normal photosynthesis takes places, otherwise
concentration of O2 I more, then rubisco combines with O2 and photorespiration occurs
 This process is reverse of photosynthesis so hampers the fixation of CO2 and wastes
energy
4.2.4 C4 Photosynthesis

 In normal photosynthesis 3C carbon compound called PGA is produced as first detected

product, therefore these plants are called C3 plants
 Some plants in dry and hot conditions produce 4C carbon compounds called oxaloacetate
as the first product of CO2 fixation in dark reactions of photosynthesis. Such
photosynthesis is called C4 photosynthesis
 C4 plants use pepco (phos-phenol-pyruvate carboxylase) instead of rubisco to fix CO2 to
a compound called phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
 This molecule is reduced to another molecule called malate which carries CO2 to special
type of cells called bundle sheaths cells where Calvin cycle proceeds
 Rate of photosynthesis remains high in C4 plants when stomata are closed and
temperature is high. The rate of CO2 fixation is also high in C4 plants
Total 19 Lectures Left

Monday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Week 08 – 12 July Unit 4 Unit 5 + 6 Unit 6
Prokaryotes
Week 15 – 19 July Unit 7 Unit 8 Unit 8 Unit 8
Protista and Fungi Diversity among
plants
Week 22 – 26 July Unit 9 Unit 9 Book 2
Form and
functions in plants
Week 29 July – 2
Aug
Week 5 Aug – 9
Aug