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LESSON 9: CARBOHYDRATES METABOLISM

TOPIC OUTLINE:

- Metabolism

- Important nucleotide-containing compounds

- Glucose Catabolism

 Glycolysis
 Pyruvate oxidation
 Citric acid cycle
 Electron transport chain

METABOLISM

- Sum total of all chemical reactions in a living organism

- Source of energy for functioning of the human body

- Also needed for many of the cellular processes such as protein synthesis, DNA replication, RNA transcription,
and membrane transport

METABOLIC PATHWAY

- Series of consecutive biochemical reactions used to convert a starting material into an end product

- Series of chemical reaction that occurs in our cells to either build or break down molecules for cellular
processes

- There are 2 types of metabolic pathways:

 Linear: reactant and will undergo a series of biochemical reaction; the reactant will be turned
into an intermediate molecule, using these enzyme, and then another intermediate molecule,
and finally it will produced a product. In linear metabolic pathways, the reactant is different
from the product, it is one way pathway that these reactant will undergo to be turned into a
product
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 Cylic: the final product is the same as initial reactant; intermediate molecule in this pathway are
generated for every turn of the cycle

IMPORTANT NUCLEOTIDE-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS

- nucleotide has 3 components: sugar, nitrogenous base, phosphate group

- adenine and ribose: adenosine

- AMP: 1 phosphate

- ADP: 2 phosphate

- ATP: 3 phosphate

ADENOSINE PHOSPHATES

- Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP)

 Structural component of RNA

- Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)

 Key component of metabolic pathways

- Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

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 Key component of metabolic pathways

FLAVIN ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE (FAD)

- Coenzyme required in numerous metabolic redox

- Coenzyme: part of an enzyme which is organic in nature; gives enzyme its biochemical function

- Redox: reduction oxidation

- LEO GER (loss of electron is oxidation, gaining of electron is reduction)

- Important because it temporarily stores energy by accepting high energy electrons

 FAD (oxidized form)

o required in numerous metabolic redox reactions
o Deoxidized formed and has electron
 FADH2 (reduced form)

NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE (NAD)

- Has coenzyme functions in metabolic redox pathways

- Temporarily stores energy

- Accepts high energy electrons

 NAD+ (oxidized form)

 NADH (reduced form)

COENZYME A

- Derivative of vitamin B (pantothenic acid)

- Active form of coenzyme A is the sulfhydryl group (-SH group)

Overview of Cellular Respiration

Stage 1 – Glycolysis

Stage 2 – Pyruvate Oxidation

Stage 3 – Citric Acid Cycle

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Stage 4 – Electron Transport Chain

Cellular Respiration

- Biochemical pathway by which cells release energy from the chemical bonds of the food molecules that we eat,

- This energy will then be used for the essential biochemical processes

- Catabolic Pathway because it breaks down larger molecules to smaller ones to provide energy

Has 2 types:

1. Aerobic Respiration (Oxygen)

2. Anaerobic Respiration (Prokaryotes)

Stage 1: Glycolysis

GLYCO → Glucose

LYSIS → Breakdown

- Metabolic pathway that involves a systematic breakdown of glucose to produce energy

- Takes place in the cytosol

- Occur in cytoplasm
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NOTE:

1st phase:

Energy is consumed

2nd phase:

Energy is produced

Glycolysis has 2 phases:

1st phase:

- glucose will be turned into D3P or Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate (intermediate product), in this process we used
energy

2nd phase

- the Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate that is produced in the 1 st phase will be used to produced pyruvate (end
product)

- energy production phase

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1st Phase Process

- Glycolysis begins with glucose (6C) and this will be turned into Glucose-6-Phosphate through the use of
hexokinase (kinase: enzyme that transfers a phosphate group)

- One phosphate group from ATP, itransfer sa glucose para mahimong glucose-6-phosphate, and since nawala
ang isa ka phosphate group sa ATP, it will become ADP (first investment) or first ATP that we used

- Glucose-6-Phosphate will be re-arranged into Fructose-6-Phosphate (glucose and fructose are isomers)
(isomers: have the same chemical formula, but differ in arrangement in atom)

- The Fructose-6-Phosphate will be turned into Fructose-1.6-Bisphosphate; naay madugang na phosphate group
particularly in the first carbon of Fructose-6-Phosphate (Bis: 2 phosphate group); Enzyme: Phospho-fructo
kinase (transfer from ATP) ang ATP makulangan ug isa ka phosphate group mahimong ADP (the second ATP that
we invested)

- Fructose-1.6-Bisphosphate could produce Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate or Dihidroxyacetone Phosphate;

enzyme Aldolase: responsible for the production G3P and Dihidroxyacetone.

1st phase:

- Energy is consumed

- Nangutang ug 2 ATPS
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Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate → ← Dihidroxyacetone Phosphate (isomers) (enzyme: isomerase)

- These specific reaction can go both ways

- Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate can be turned into Dihidroxyacetone Phosphate

- But in glycolysis, it favors the production of G3P

- This equation will go in favor to G3P, the Dihidroxyacetone Phosphate that is produced in 1 st phase, they will be
isomerized to form Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate

2nd phase process:

- G3P will be turned into 1-3-Biphosphate Glycerate through the enzyme: GL-3-P Dehydrogenase: in this
process, NAD will be reduced (gain of electron) to NADH

- 1-3-Biphosphate Glycerate will be turned into 3-Phosphate-Glycerate; phosphate group of carbon no. 1 kay
mawala tapos mahimo na siyag 3-Phosphate-Glycerate: catalyzed by an enzyme: Phosphoglycerate kinase) ADP
madugangan ug isa ka phosphate group kay gikuha niya sa 1-3-Biphosphate Glycerate, then maka gain ug ATP

- 3-Phosphate-Glycerate, naay re-arrangement na mahitabo isa ka phosphate group. Sa 3-Phospho-Glycerate kay

naa sa 3rd carbon, ibalhin sa second carbon busa nahimo og 2-Phospho-Glycerate; enzyme: phosphoglycerate
mutase

- The 2-Phospho-Glycerate will be turned into Phospoenol Pyruvate through the enzyme:enolase

- Phospoenol Pyruvate will be turned into Pyruvate which is the end product of glycolysis; enzyme: kinase
(transfer of phospate group) ADP -> ATP
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2nd phase: Energy production phase

ALWAYS REMEMBER: this phase happens twice. So the ATP that you produced will be 2x2; so total of 4 ATPs in
2nd phase

Explanation:

1ND phase: nangutang ug 2 ka ATP

2ND phase: produce 2 ATP X 2 so 4 ATPs produced

NET ATP: 2 ATPs

In glycolysis: 2 ATP is produced

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Glucose will be turned into Pyruvate

2 ADP will be turned into 2 ATPS

2 NAD+ will be turned into 2 NADH

The result of glycolysis:

This is for the case of: AEROBIC RESPIRATION

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (PROKARYOTES)

Undergo same process of glycolysis as the aerobic respiration:

- has glucose molecules, 6C glucose molecule and it will be turned into 2 molecules of pyruvate

- in this process, mangutang sa 1st phase og 2 ATP

- second phase, maka produce og 4 ATPs so the net ATP in glycolysis is 2 ATP

- In this process, we also use 2 NAD+ para mahimo siya ug 2 NADH and 2 Pyruvate

If you undergo aerobic respiration, pyruvate, mo proceed sa next stage which is pyruvate oxidation

- If anaerobic respiration, it will not undergo pyruvate oxidation, it will instead undergo fermentation (Alcoholic
Fermentation or Lacatae fermentation)
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ALCOHOL FERMENTATION

- process is glycolysis wherein glucose will be turned into 2 molecules of pyruvate

- instead of proceeding to pyruvate oxidation, it will undergo decarboxylation: pyruvate ma kwaan ug carbon
dioxide,

- 2 pyruvate will be turned into 2 acetaldehyde and this will use 2 molecules of NADH (it will oxidized or lose
electron para mahimo og 2NAD+)

- 2NAD+ will be used in glycolysis para mahimo ug 2 NADH

- The 2 acetaldehyde will be turned into 2 molecules of ethanol: kind of alcohol that humans can consume in the
form of beer and wine.

- The organism that undergo alcohol fermentation is yeast.

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LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION

- will undergo same process of glycolysis to produce 2 pyruvate

- but it will not decarboxylate

- instead diretso na siya ug lactate: conjugated base of lactic acid

- lactic acid is produced by certain fungi and bacteria; used in industrial production e.g cheese and yogurt

- humans can undergo lactic acid fermentation particularly muscle cells

- when humans undergo strenous activity, human muscle cells will resort to lactic acid fermentation because the
energy demand of your muscle cells is greater than the amount of oxygen we inhale

- ENERGY DEMAND > O2 -> ATP

Stage 2: Pyruvate oxidation

Aerobic Respiration

- result of glycolysis is pyruvate

- in aerobic respiration, it will

undergo pyruvate oxidation

- occurs in the mitochondrial

matrix (inner membrane

- pyruvate - > acetyl coa; enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

- mosulod ang CoA (coenzyme A) has an active for of sulfhydryl group; ang electron sa CoA, iya I donate sa NAD+
(diri mabalhin ang hydrogen) and the carbon dioxide from pyruvate will be released as well

- acetyl CoA will be carried out of citric acid cycle

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LESSON 9: CARBOHYDRATES METABOLISM

Stage 1: Glycolysis

- starts with a molecule of glucose which is a 6-carbon compound

- it will convert into two compounds of pyruvate that both have 3 carbons in them

Stage 2: Pyruvate Oxidation

- pyruvate is oxidized into acetyl coA,

- in this reaction coA will react to a pyruvate to convert it to acetyl coA, wherein carbon dioxide is lost

Stage 3: Citric acid cycle

- Acetyl coA will enter the cycle and it will react with a compound called oxaloacetate and there will be a series of
reduction processes.

- Products from this cycle will be utilized in the final step which is the electron transport chain (ETC)

STAGE 4: Electron Transport Chain

- a set of enzymes located on the inner mitochondrial membrane

STAGE 3: CITRIC ACID CYCLE

- AKA Krebs Cycle (Hans Krebs) (cyclic pathway)

- Biochemical pathway that is used to generate energy (ATP) through the oxidization of acetyl COA derived from
carbs, fats and proteins

- Eukaryotes -> mitochondrial matrix

- Prokayotes -> cytosol or cytoplasm

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Process:

1st: begins with acetyl-coa (product of the pyruvate oxidation) 2 carbon compound

2nd it will react oxaloacetate: a four carbon compound and they will react together to form citrate: a six carbon
citrate; they are catalyzed by the enzyme citrate synthase

3rd and citrate will be isomerized to become isocitrate (isomerization: atoms in the citrate will be rearranged to form
isocitrate) enzyme: aconitase

4th isocitrate will be converted into alpha-ketoglurate using the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase and in this reaction
NAD is reduced to NADH (REDUCED: GAINS AN ELECTRON); 1 molecule of carbon dioxide is released in this reaction

5th alpha-ketoglurate will be converted into succinyl coa; enzyme: alphaketoglurate dehydrogenase; it will reduced
NAD to NADH and another molecule of carbon dioxide is released

6th succinyl coa will be converted into succinate; enzyme succinyl COA synthase and one molecule of ATP is produced
in this reaction

7th succinate will be converted into fumerate; enzyme succinate dehydrogenase and in this reaction, a molecule of
FADH2 is released

8th fumarate will be converted to malate using fumerate dehydratase

9th malate will be converted back to oxaloacetate using the enzyme malate dehydrogenase; NAD is reduced to NADH

- In the cellular respiration for every one glucose molecule, citric acid cycle runs 2x

- every products of the citric acid cycle will be multiplied by 2

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STAGE 4: ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

- a set of enzymes located on the inner mitochondrial membrane

- energy calculations per molecule of glucose

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- in the citric acid cycle, every product that we get from the citric acid cycle, pyruvate oxidation and glycolysis
(stage 1-3) they will be used as inputs in the electron transport chain because they will be converteed into
energy in the form of ATP

REMEMBER:

- in the ETC, in the inner membrane (I, II, IIII, IV), we have ATP synthase: converts these compounds into ATO

- hydrogen ions are constantly pumped into the ETC from the matrix and intermembrane space

- they will enter the ATP synthase

- for every 4 hydrogen ions that enters the ATP synthase, a molecule of ATP is produced
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- number of total ATPs produced in the cellular respiration could range to 34,38,36. (these numbers vary
because there is no exact amount of ATP that is produced in every glucose molecule
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LESSON 9: CARBOHYDRATES METABOLISM