CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Glycolysis

- Occurs in the cytosol

- Net Products: 2 ATP, 2 NADH

Step 1

The enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates or adds a phosphate group to glucose in a cell's cytoplasm. In

the process, a phosphate group from ATP is transferred to glucose producing glucose 6-phosphate or
G6P. One molecule of ATP is consumed during this phase.

Step 2
The enzyme phosphoglucomutase isomerizes G6P into its isomer fructose 6-phosphate or F6P.
Isomers have the same molecular formula as each other but different atomic arrangements.

Step 3

The kinase phosphofructokinase uses another ATP molecule to transfer a phosphate group to F6P in

order to form fructose 1,6-bisphosphate or FBP. Two ATP molecules have been used so far.

Step 4

The enzyme aldolase splits fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into a ketone and an aldehyde molecule. These
sugars, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP), are isomers of
each other.

Step 5

The enzyme triose-phosphate isomerase rapidly converts DHAP into GAP (these isomers can inter-
convert). GAP is the substrate needed for the next step of glycolysis.

Step 6

The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) serves two functions in this

reaction. First, it dehydrogenates GAP by transferring one of its hydrogen (H⁺) molecules to the oxidizing
agent nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) to form NADH + H⁺.

Next, GAPDH adds a phosphate from the cytosol to the oxidized GAP to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
(BPG). Both molecules of GAP produced in the previous step undergo this process of dehydrogenation
and phosphorylation.

Step 7

The enzyme phosphoglycerokinase transfers a phosphate from BPG to a molecule of ADP to form

ATP. This happens to each molecule of BPG. This reaction yields two 3-phosphoglycerate (3 PGA)
molecules and two ATP molecules.

Step 8

The enzyme phosphoglyceromutase relocates the P of the two 3 PGA molecules from the third to the
second carbon to form two 2-phosphoglycerate (2 PGA) molecules.

Step 9

The enzyme enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form

phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). This happens for each molecule of 2 PGA from Step 8.

Step 10

The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a P from PEP to ADP to form pyruvate and ATP. This happens
for each molecule of PEP. This reaction yields two molecules of pyruvate and two ATP molecules.
Pyruvate Oxidation

- Cleaves the pyruvate, producing acetyl-CoA and carbon dioxide

- NAD+ to NADH
- Net product: 2 NADH

Krebs Cycle

- Occurs in the mitochondria, particularly in the matrix (mitochondria have an outer membrane, and
intermembrane space, and inner membrane (the crista) and the matrix)
- All carbons are eliminated as CO2
- Net products: 6 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 FADH2

The first phase of cellular respiration, called glycolysis, takes place in the cytosol of the cell's cytoplasm.
The citric acid cycle, however, occurs in the matrix of cell mitochondria. Prior to the beginning of the citric
acid cycle, pyruvic acid generated in glycolysis crosses the mitochondrial membrane and is used to
form acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). Acetyl CoA is then used in the first step of the citric acid cycle.
Each step in the cycle is catalyzed by a specific enzyme.

Step 1: Citric acid

The two-carbon acetyl group of acetyl CoA is added to the four-carbon oxaloacetate to form the six-
carbon citrate. The conjugate acid of citrate is citric acid, hence the name citric acid cycle. Oxaloacetate is
regenerated at the end of the cycle so that the cycle may continue. 

Step 2: Aconitase

Citrate loses a molecule of water and another is added. In the process, citric acid is converted to its
isomer isocitrate. 

Step 3: Isocitrate dehydrogenase

Isocitrate loses a molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2) and is oxidized forming the five-carbon alpha
ketoglutarate. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is reduced to NADH + H+ in the process. 

Step 4: Alpha Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase

Alpha ketoglutarate is converted to the 4-carbon succinyl CoA. A molecule of CO2 is removed and
NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+ in the process. 

Step 5: Succinyl-CoA Synthetase

CoA is removed from the succinyl CoA molecule and is replaced by a phosphate group. The phosphate
group is then removed and attached to guanosine diphosphate (GDP) thereby forming guanosine
triphosphate (GTP). Like ATP, GTP is an energy-yielding molecule and is used to generate ATP when it
donates a phosphate group to ADP. The final product from the removal of CoA from succinyl CoA
is succinate. 

Step 6: Succinate Dehydrogenase

Succinate is oxidized and fumarate is formed. Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is reduced and forms
FADH2 in the process. 

Step 7: Fumarase

A water molecule is added and bonds between the carbons in fumarate are rearranged forming malate. 

Step 8: Maltase

Malate is oxidized forming oxaloacetate, the beginning substrate in the cycle. NAD+ is reduced to NADH
+ H+ in the process. 

FADH2 and NADH get oxidized by losing the hydrogens in the ETC and the bulk of the ATP is produced.
NADH produces 2-3 ATPs, while FADH2 produces 1.5-2 ATP

Oxidative Phosphorylation

- the process in which ATP is formed as a result of the transfer of electrons from NADH or
FADH 2 to O 2 by a series of electron carriers.
NADH  NAD+ + H+ + 2e-

- Oxidation; losing electrons

- If the electrons get the appropriate acceptor molecule, it can release a lot of energy

2e- + 2H+ + 1/2O2  H2O

- Oxygen as the acceptor; oxygen likes to oxidize things and to be reduced

- Will release a big amount of energy that will go to waste because it’s too much

So oxidative phosphorylation has steps which allows gradual release of energy so it can be used to do
work: pumping hydrogen protons across a membrane and the gradient that forms is used to generate
ATP

There are enzymes or protein complexes that serve as electron acceptors that go across the membrane,
which allows the ETC to occur.

Electron Transport Chain

- occurs in the inner membrane

- protons are pumped out to the intermembrane space and proton gradient is created; less protons
in the matrix
 - ATP synthase is then used to generate ATP out of that proton gradient by allowing the protons to
flow their electrochemical gradient, making the axle made out of amino acids spin… there are
ADPs and phosphates lodged in it and when the axle rotates, the conformation of the protein
changes in a way that binds the ADP to the phosphate, finally forming ATP
- D

Addition:

- Hormones are chemical substances in the body that send signals to the brain

LIPID METABOLISM

- Types: Fats, oils, waves, steroids, eicosanoids, phospholipids

- Fatty acids (FA) are the building blocks of most lipids
- Pancreas releases lipase enzyme to digest fat
- Bile aids digestion and absorption; bile is amphipathic (both hydrophilic and hydrophobic)
- Bile is produced by the liver and is concentrated in the gallbladder
- Triacylglycerols (TAG) are major fuel store in the body

Ketoacidosis

- Is a complication of diabetes wherein the liver metabolizes fats into ketones (blood acids) at a
very fast rate, which makes the blood acidic

Lipase

- Any enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of fats

Assimilation

- the absorption and digestion of food or nutrients by the body or any biological system.

Small Intestine
 - The jejunum is the middle segment of the small intestine found between the duodenum and the
ileum. Most of the nutrients present in food are absorbed by the jejunum before being passed on
to the ileum for further absorption.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

- A system inside the cell whose functions include synthesis and transport of lipids

Cytosis 

- is a transport mechanism for the movement of large quantities of molecules into and out of cells.
There are three main types of cytosis: endocytosis (into the cell), exocytosis (out of the cell), and
transcytosis (through the cell, in and out).

Functions of the Villi

- We've already stated that the small intestine's main job is to absorb nutrients from the food you
eat and that your villi help by increasing the surface area the intestine has for absorption

**Glucose can be converted into fatty acids (with stimulation of insulin) and glucose can also be made via
gluconeogenesis with the help of energy from fatty acids released from the adipose tissue

**The release of FA from adipose cells for gluconeogenesis is signaled by a drop of insulin levels and an
increase in glucagon levels

Fatty Acid Synthesis

- Occurs in the cytoplasm

- Citrate from the mitochondria is sent to the cytoplasm and is broken down into oxaloacetate and
acetyl-CoA
- 9 steps and fatty acid synthase catalyzes 6 of them

For Palmitic acid synthesis:

- 8 acetyl-CoA + 7 ATP + 14 NADPH  Palmitic acid (16-C FA)

+ 7 ADP + 14 Pi + 14 NADP+ + 6 H2O + 8 CoA

Acetyl CoA carboxylase

- Catalyzes the conversion of acetyl-CoA into malonyl-CoA

- A regulated enzyme because that step is the rate-limiting step
- Allosteric regulation (specific molecule binding to a non-active site portion of the enzyme that may
make the pathway better or worse; citrate is a stimulator, while fatty acids esp LC are inhibitors)
- Hormonal regulation (insulin is a stimulator; glucagon is an inhibitor)

Fatty acid synthase

- A complex
Beta Oxidation of Fatty Acids

- Four reactions
- Yields 14 ATPs every oxidation cycle

Ketogenesis

- Takes place in the liver

Fatty Acid Oxidation (Beta-oxidation)

- Palmitic acid oxidation yields 80 ATPs acetyl-CoA metabolism and 27 ATPs from NADH and
FADH2 oxidation
- Begins in the cytoplasm and ends in the matrix
- Activate, transport, oxidize

Carnitine acyl transferase I

- Attaches carnitine to acyl-CoA to enter IMM (inner mitochondrial membrane)

- Rate limiting step
- For regulation: malonyl-coA is an inhibitor

Acyl carnitine translocase

- Allows passage through IMM

Carnitine acyl transferase I

- Detaches carnitine
How does the body adapt during starvation?

Ketone bodies are water-soluble molecules which allow to pass through the blood brain barrier. In the
brain, they are then converted back into acetyl-CoA to go through the Krebs cycle. Acetyl-CoA straight
from fatty acids cannot be used by the brain because it cannot go into the brain.