PHOTOSYNTHESIS
– other feeders.
- The process in which plants make food
for themselves and for the rest of us.
- Photosynthesis occurs not on the
surface layers of the leaf, but rather in a
middle layer of the leaf called
MESOPHYLL.
- Multi-step process that requires:
 Sunlight
 Carbon Dioxide
 and Water as starting reactants.
- Releases oxygen and glucose.
- The photosynthesis process takes
place inside an organelle called
CHLOROPLAST, a kind of plastid exist
in the Mesophyll.
- STOMATA is a small, regulated opening
where gas exchange of carbon dioxide
and oxygen occurs.
- THYLAKOID, disc-shaped structures
within the chloroplast
- THYLAKOID MEMBRANE encloses an
internal space called the thylakoid
lumen.
- Embedded in the thylakoid membrane
are molecules of CHLOROPYHLL,
responsible for the green color of
plants.
- Stack of thylakoids is called a
GRANUM, and the space surrounding
the granum is called STROMATA (the
cytoplasm).
ORGANISMS
 AUTOTROPHS
– make food for their OWN use.
 PHOTOAUTOTROPHS
– self-feeders using light.
 HETEROTROPHS
TERMINOLOGIES:
 ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate;
provides energy.
 ADP – Adenosine Diphosphate
 NADP – Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Phosphate; electron
carrier.
 G3P – Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate
 3-PGA – 3-Phosphoglycerate
 RuBP – Ribulose Bisphosphate
 RuBisCO –Ribulose Bisphosphate
Carboxylase
 CO2 – Carbon Dioxide
THE LIGHT DEPENDENT
REACTION
- Takes place at the thylakoid
membrane(where pigments such as
chlorophyll are found).
- Depends on light.
- Pigments are arranged in clusters
called Photosystems.
PHOTOSYSTEM II:
1.) chlorophyll absorbs light.
2.) electrons in chlorophyll gain energy(gets
excited).
3.) excited electrons leave the cholorophyll
and move to the Electron Transport Chain.
4.) lost electrons need to be replaced.
5.) to replace them, water is split and its
electrons go to the chlorophyll. Together with
electrons, Hydrogen Ions and oxygen are
also produced.
6.) ETC transports electrons, as it does, the
electrons uses its energy to pump hydrogen
ions(protons) from the stroma across the THE LIGHT INDEPENDENT
thylakoid membrane.
REACTION
7.) The transferred hydrogen ions would be
passively diffused from high to low - Calvin Cycle
concentration by the ATP Synthase. - Dark Reactions

8.) The flow of hydrogen ions through ATP

synthase causes it to spin and produce
ATP(one of the key products of the cycle).
9.) Electrons reach the end of the first ETC,
they will proceed to the Photosystem I where
light excites them again.
10.) They travel down a second ETC where
they are accepted by a molecule called
NADP+.
11.) When the electrons meet NADP+,
hydrogen ions are used along with these two
to make NADPH.
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION NET
GAIN:
 ATP – source of energy
 NADPH – carries electron and
hydrogen to the calvin cycle.
I. CARBON FIXATION
1.) CO2 is attached to RuBP by the enzyme,
RuBisCO. This forms 2 molecules of 3-PGA
for each CO2 added.
II. REDUCTION
2.) Each molecule of 3-PGA is reduced to
form G3P. This requires energy from ATP and
electrons from NADPH.
3.) G3P is the final product of the Calvin
Cycle. One molecule of G3P will leave the
calvin cycle and will be used to form organic
compounds like glucose.
III. REGENERATION OF RuBP
4.) the other 5 G3P molecules are used to
generate RuBP so that the calvin cycle
continues.

5.) the reactions that regenerate RuBP

requires energy to occur. This energy comes
from 3 ATP.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- Process where organisms break down
glucose to make ATP(cell energy).
- Plants make glucose in photosynthesis
and break them down in cellular
respiration.
- Has two kinds: aerobic and anaerobic.
STEP 1: GLYCOLYSIS
- Literally means “Glucose Breakdown”
- ANAEROBIC(doesn’t require oxygen)
- Happens in the CYTOPLASM of both
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
- Glucose, a six-carbon molecule is
broken in half to make two molecules of
PYRUVATE (a three-carbon molecule).
PHASES OF GLYCOLYSIS:
PHASE I: ENERGY INVESTMENT
(PHOSPHORYLATION)
- 2 molecules of ATP are invested to get
the process started, these ATP transfer
their phosphates to glucose. This
energizes glucose and makes it
unstable for it to continue to react and
get broken down.
PHASE II: LYSIS
- 6-carbon sugar is broken in half to
make two 3-carbon molecules which is
called.
PHASE III: OXIDATION
- During this phase, remnants of glucose
get oxidized. Meaning that electrons
and hydrogens are stripped off of them
and transferred to special electron
carrier molecules, making NAD+ into
NADH. Those NADH will carry
electrons to the final step of respiration.
PHASE IV: ATP FORMATION
- Phosphates get transferred from our
sugars to ADP making ATP. This makes
two molecules of PYRUVATE and four
molecules of ATP. However, since 2
ATP were invested at the start of
glycolysis, our net gain is only two
molecules of ATP.
GLYCOLYSIS NET GAIN:
- 2 Pyruvates
- 2 NADH
- 2 ATP
 STEP 2: THE KREBS CYCLE
 If oxygen is available, aerobic
respiration will go forward. - Citric Acid Cycle
 In eukaryotic cells, the pyruvate - Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
molecules produced at the end of - The 2 Acetyl CoA molecule made
glycolysis are transported into the during pyruvate oxidation enters the
MITOCHONDRIA. Krebs Cycle.
- Hans Krebs identified the steps in the
pathway in the 1930s.
LOCATION: Matrix of Mitochondria
PYRUVATE OXIDATION REACTANTS:
- 2 Acetyl CoA
- 6 NAD+
- Acetyl CoA is produced. - 2 FADH+
- 2 ADP
1. In order for the pyruvate to enter the next PRODUCTS:
pathway, the Krebs Cycle, it must undergo a - 4 CO2
three-step process inside the - 6 NADH
MITOCHONDRION. - 2 FADH2
- 2 ATP
2. Pyruvate will be converted into Acetyl CoA
TERMINOLOGIES:
3. Electrons and Hydrogens from pyruvate  Oxaloacetate – starting and ending
will be transferred to NAD+ compound of the cycle.
 FADH – Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
4. Both pyruvate will release a carbon as
 a-ketoglutarate – alpha-ketoglutarate
carbon dioxide.
 SH – Sulfhydryl group
5. Next, CoA(coenzyme) will be attached to  GTP – Guanosine Triphosphate
the acetyl group making Acetyl-CoA.
STEPS:

PYRUVATE OXIDATION NET GAIN: STEP 1: 2 carbons of Acetyl CoA combined

 2 Acetyl CoA – Acetyl coenzyme A;
to Krebs Cycle
 2 Carbon Dioxide – Breath out
 2 NADH – to Electron Transport
Chain
with 4 carbons of Oxaloacetate makes
CITRATE. CoA is bound to a sulfhydryl
group(-SH) and diffuses away to eventually
combine with another acetyl group.
STEP 2: Citrate loses one water molecule
and gains another as citrate is converted to
its isomer, ISOCITRATE.
STEP 3: Isocitrate is oxidized, producing a
five-carbon molecule, a- ketoglutarate,
together with CO2; 2 electrons used for
NADP+ - NADPH.

STEP 3 & 4: These steps are both oxidation

and decarboxylation, which release electrons
that reduce NAD+ to NADH and release
carboxyl groups that form CO2 molecules.
 a-Ketoglutarate (product of step 3)
 succinyl group (product of step 4)
CoA binds with the succinyl group to form
SUCCINYL CoA.

STEP 5: A phosphate group is substituted for

CoA to form SUCCINATE with is catalyzed by
succinyl-CoA synthase. This will make one
molecule of GTP which can be used to make
one ATP

STEP 6: This is a dehydration process that

converts succinate into FUMARATE at the
succinate dehydrogenase. Two hydrogen
atoms are transferred to FAD, producing
FADH2.

STEP 7: Water is added to fumarate during

this step, and MALATE is produced in the
malate dehydrogenase.

STEP 8: The last step in the citric acid cycle

regenerates oxaloacetate by oxidizing
malate. Another molecule of NADPH is
produced in the process. .

 Since there are 2 Acetyl CoA, the cycle

must be completed twice.

ELECTRON TRANSPORT
CHAIN
- Oxidative Phosphorylation
- The portion of aerobic respiration that
uses free oxygen as the final electron
acceptor.
- There are four complexes composed f
proteins, labeled I to IV.

LOCATION: Inner membrane of

Mitochondria
REACTANTS: FADH2 & NADH electrons
COMPLEX I:
- To start, two electrons are carried to the
first complex aboard NADH. This
complex called NADH dehydrogenase
complex, labeled I.
- Complex I accepts electrons from
NADH, passin them to ubiquinone.
- Complex I can pump four hydrogen
ions across the membrane from the
matrix into the intermembrane space.

COMPLEX II:
- The compound connecting the first and
second complexes to the third is
UBIQUINONE(Q).
- The Q molecule delivers electrons from
NADH and electrons derived from
FADH2 in Complex II to the next
complex.

COMPLEX III:
- Also called cytochrome oxidoreductose.
- Complex III recieves electrons from
ubiquinone passing them to Cyt
C(Cytochrome c), which carries
electron to Complex IV.
- Complex III pumps protons through the
membrane and passes its electrons to
Cyt C for transport to the fourth
complex.

COMPLEX IV:
- The electrons need somewhere to go, a
final destination.
- Fortunately, you breath and oxygen
together with hydrogen ions from the
matrix, accepts the electrons making
WATER

CHEMIOSMOSIS (ATP MAKING):

- The uneven distribution of H+ ions
across the inner mitochondrial
membrane establishes both
concentration and electrical gradients.
- Through ATP synthase, an integral
membrane protein, Hydrogen ions can
turn from High to Low Concentration.
- As hydrogen ions spin ATP synthase
like a turbine, 4 H+ ions can make 1
ATP, making between 30-34 ATP.