Bio Notes 14/09

Photosynthesis is divided into Light independent and dependent reactions (stages).

The Light independent reactions are called the Calvin cycle.
Water, CO2 and Sunlight are needed.
For vascular plants, roots absorb water and bring it to the leaves through tissue called xylem
CO2 in and O2 out through stomata. O2 levels must be kept low by plant.
Individual photons from the sun are absorbed by chlorophyll.
The chloroplast is a plastid with a complicated internal structure: Chlorophyll is kept in internal sacks called
THYLAKOIDS, which are stacked into GRANA. Inside is the lumen, and outside (but still inside the chloroplast) is
the STROMA.
Thylakoid membranes are phospholipid bilayers which means they're good at maintaining concentration
gradients of ions and proteins, etc.
Concentration will be higher on one side of the bilayer.
1. Stage 1 (Light Dependent Reactions)
A photon created by the fusion reactions of the sun is
absorbed by a chlorophyll molecule. An electron absorbs the energy and gets excited. This is called
photoexcitation.
That chlorophyll is part of a complex of proteins, lipids and other molecules called Photosystem II
(Plastoquinone Oxidoreductase) (PSII)that contains over 99 different chemicals including over 30 chlorophyll
molecules.
This is the first of 4 protein complexes that plants need for the light dependent reactions. These complexes
straddle the membrane of the thylakoids and the chloroplasts.
The excited electron goes through the Electron Transport Chain in which energized electrons lose their energy
in a series of reactions capture the necessary energy.
A special protein designed to steal electrons the electron leaps off the chlorophyll molecule onto the protein
which is called a mobile electron carrier.
The chlorophyll in cooperation with the rest of PSII, splits an H2O molecule and steals an electron to replenish
the one it lost. The by products of this are a hydrogen ion and an oxygen ion.
All energized electrons from PSII have been picked up by electron carriers and now are being transported to
the second protein complex: The Cytochrome Complex.
This has two functions:
1. It serves as an intermediary between PSII and PSI
2. It uses some of the energy from the electron to pump another proton into the thylakoids .
The thylakoid is now filling up with proteins from the splitting of H20 and from the Cytochrome complex. This
charges it like a battery and creates a concentration gradient. The proteins are repelled by each other and push
their way through an enzyme straddling the thylakoid membrane called ATP Synthase. That enzyme uses the
energy to pack an inorganic phosphate onto ADP and create ATP.

All of this moving along the electron transport chains require energy and the electrons have lower and lower
energy levels, so the electrons get re-energised upon delivery to Photosystem I (PSI).
This is a similar mix of protein and molecules as in PSII but with some different products. After being recharged,
the electrons jump on another electron carrier. This time all the energy is used to create NADPH (exists to carry
energy). Here another enzyme combines two electrons and a hydrogen ion using NADP+, becoming NADPH.
After the light dependent reactions we are left with chemical energy in then form of NADPH and ATP. We also
have the byproduct oxygen.
2. The Calvin Cycle (Light Independent Reactions)
Sometimes called the dark cycle, but generally doesn't occur in the dark. Does not require energy from
photons.
Uses the energy from NADP and ATP to create useful products.
The Calvin cycle begins in the stroma (empty space inside the chloroplast) and this phase is called Carbon
Fixation. A CO2 molecule is fixed onto a starting point: Ribulose BisPhosphate (RUBP), which is always around
in the chlroplast as it starts and ends the Calvin cycle.
An enzyme aids in this fixing: Ribulose 1,5 Bisphosphate Carboxylase Oxydase (RuBisCo).
This enzyme converts inorganic carbon to organic carbon. However it creates a byproduct called
Phosphoglycolate which is believed to tinker with some enzyme functions. As a result plants have to break it
down into Glycine and some other useful compounds. At any given time it's estimated there are about 40B
tons of RuBisCo on the planet.
RuBisCo gets a CO2 slammed on it making the 6 carbon chain unstable causing it to break apart creating two
molecules of 3 phosphoglycerate. (First'stable products of Calvin cycle)This happens to three molecules of
RUBP.
The second phase of the Carbon Cycle is Reduction. Here energy is required so some ATP adds a phosphate
group the 3 phosphoglycerate and NADP adds some electrons and two molecules of Glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate (G3P).
This is a high energy, 3 carbon compound that can be converted into glucose, cellulose, starch, etc.
Because of this G3P is considered the ultimate product of photosynthesis.
5 G3P's are needed to regenerate the 3RUBPs we started with.
9ATP and 6NADPH are also required.
With all this we can convert 3RUBPs to 6G3P's but only one of those G3P's leaves the cycle. The other 5 remain
in the cycle to regenerate the 3Ribulose Bisphosphates. Regeneration is the last phase of the Calvin cycle.
The end.