What is a chloroplast?

A chloroplast is an organelle found in plant cells and

certain algae that photosynthesise. A chloroplast is a type of plastid, which
is an organelle that has a double membrane. Chloroplast has a green
pigment called chlorophyll which harvests light energy to make food.

Where is the location of the chloroplast? The chloroplast is located within

plant cells of leaves, green organs of plants and certain algae. Chloroplasts
can also be found in the brown blades of kelp or the red leaves of certain
plants.

What are the major processes of the chloroplast? The chloroplast has a
magnificent task which is to undergo the process of photosynthesis for the
benefit of the plants and certain algae.The process is called photosynthesis
and occurs in the leaves of plants. Therefore, plants are called autotrophs
because they are able to intake H2O through their roots, harvest light
energy using photosystems in the thylakoid membrane of leaves and
carbon dioxide through their stomata to create food, which they store as
glucose through the process of photosynthesis. They also release oxygen
into the air, which is beneficial to the cellular respiration of humans. We
start the process with these reactants and end with these products. 6CO2+
6H2O + light energy—------> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis consists of two important stages, which are the light

reactions and the Calvin cycle. The light reactions occur in the thylakoid
membranes that contain photosystems made of pigments and proteins that
harvest light while the Calvin Cycle occurs in the stroma independent of
light.

The light reaction occurs in 2 separate stages: the non-cyclic

photophosphorylation stage and the cyclic photophosphorylation stage.

Non Cyclic Phosphorylation Stage

We start off with the non cyclic phosphorylation stage.
1)Both photosystem I and II in the thylakoid membrane absorb light energy
from the sun during this process.
2)Each photosystem directs the captured light energy to its reaction center.
3)This increase in energy causes electrons to reach higher energy states
within photosystems I and II.
4) An immense amount of energy is absorbed by the electrons leading to
oxidation
5) Two electrons are set free from the reaction center of each photosystem.
The electrons from Photosystem II move through an electron transport
chain (ETC) via a cytochrome complex, ultimately being utilized to reduce
the reaction center of Photosystem I.
6)As the electrons traverse the electron transport chain (ETC), their energy
is harnessed to facilitate the active transport of hydrogen ions/protons from
the stroma into the thylakoid membrane.
7) This process starts the build-up of a H+ gradient with an area of high H+
concentration created inside the thylakoid and an area of low H+
concentration in the surroundings of stroma.

8)This gradient stores potential energy within the thylakoid membrane. This
energy will eventually be used to manufacture ATP.

9) The electrons exit Photosystem I and travel through an ETC.

10) Then the electrons are used to reduce NADP+( an electron carrier)
which forms NADPH. Later, the energy stored in NADPH will become
glucose during the Calvin Cycle.

11) The H+ ions exit the thylakoid to enter the stroma via a channel within
the ATP synthase enzyme.

12) The enzyme harvests the kinetic energy of the H+ ions in order to
phosphorylate ADP to create ATP.
This process of using energy from H+ ion gradient to phosphorylate ADP is
known as chemiosmosis. The energy
from the ATP will be used during the Calvin Cycle to make glucose.
We are not finished yet as the next product must be made. That product is
oxygen gas.
 1) After Photosystem II is fully oxidized, it receives a net positive charge.
2) The Photosystem splits water molecules, by a process called
photolysis, to produce electrons to replace those electrons lost during
the oxidation.
3) The H+ ions are all that remain after the O2 are released and they
add to H+ gradient in the thylakoid membrane.
This process is crucial to the oxygen gas that circulates in the Earth’s
atmosphere.

Cyclic Phosphorylation
Cyclic photophosphorylation or cyclic electron-This process occurs hand in
hand with the noncyclic
photophosphorylation portion. However, cyclic photophosphorylation
involves Photosystem I.
1) Photosystem’s pigment proteins absorb light energy and funnel it to
the reaction center. The absorbed energy eventually causes the
reaction center to be oxidized.
2) The pair of electrons move through a different ETC network than the
one used during the noncyclic portion of the process.
3) As the electrons move through the ETC, their energy is used to
power the active transport of
hydrogen ions/protons from the stroma into the thylakoid.

4) This recreates a buildup of a hydrogen ion gradient.

5) The hydrogen ions move along the channel within the ATP synthase
and exit the thylakoid into the stroma. The kinetic energy of the active
ions is used to phosphorylate ADP to make ATP.
The sole product of cyclic photophosphorylation is ATP.

The Calvin Cycle happens in the stroma of chloroplasts. It is a sequence of

chemical reactions occurring during photosynthesis, which converts carbon
dioxide into glucose.
Phase 1: Carbon Fixation
 1) A 5 Carbon chain known as ribulose biphosphate attaches to a
carbon dioxide molecule.
2) Rubisco, which is an enzyme, transforms bisphosphate.
3) This rapidly produces an unstable compound consisting of six carbon
compounds that breaks into two 3 C chains known as PGA
molecules.
Phase 2—Reduction—In this stage, the PGA molecules that were created
in Phase 1 are energized from the
molecules produced in the light-dependent phase of photosynthesis.
1) To begin with, the phosphate groups are provided with energy from
the ATP molecules.
2) They are moved to the PGA molecules. Then, PGA molecules
undergo reduction by utilizing electrons and energy derived from
NADPH.
3) Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate, or G3P, is the outcome of this process
in the form of a highly energized compound with three carbon atoms.
4) Glucose is produced by combining 2 G3P molecules. G3P has the
capacity to produce starch, cellulose, and various other organic
molecules that are required by the plant.
Phase 3-Regeneration of RuBP
1) The 5 remaining G3P molecules are
re-phosphorylated with the help of ATP obtained from the light reactions.
This ensures that the cell has a constant supply of ribulose bisphosphate to
enable the uninterrupted progress of the Calvin Cycle.
In conclusion, in the Calvin Cycle, the carbon dioxide combines with ATP
and NADPH to produce G3P, which eventually leads to the formation of
glucose and various organic compounds. As a result, glucose is made
easily portable and storable within the plant cell.