COMPRESSED NOTES CHAPTER 11: IMMUNITY SB025

11.1 IMMUNE RESPONSE

(A) IMMUNITY

 Immunity is ability of the body to recognize and protect itself against foreign substance (pathogen ~
virus/bacteria OR soluble toxin protein) that can cause disease
 Two types of immune response :

(B) GENERAL STRUCTURE AND STATE THE CLASSES OF ANTIBODIES

Antibody
Antibody or immunoglobulin, Ig is the protein compounds produced by plasma cells in response to specific
antigens and having the capacity to react against the antigens.
Common structure of antibody
 Y shaped molecule consists of 4 polypeptide chains:
 2 light chains (short polypeptides chain)
 2 heavy chains (long polypeptides chain)
 Each polypeptide held together by disulfide bridges
 Each chain has :
 Constant region (C) – constant region of heavy chain
serves as a basis for distinguishing the classes of
antibodies
 Variable region (V) - for antigen binding site
 The variable region of both heavy & light chains combined
forming antigen-binding site
V= Variable region  Antigen binding site that bind with specific antigens
C= Constant region  Each antibody has 2 identical antigen binding sites specific
for the epitope (antigenic determinant).

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The five Immunoglobulin (Ig) classes

IgM IgG IgA IgE IgD
(pentamer) (monomer) (dimer) (monomer) (monomer)

1st antibody Major antibody Protect mucosal Involve in Receptor for

secreted during secreted in surface of the body allergic antigen on B cell
primary immune secondary immune for infection responses; surface
response response e.g. saliva, mucus, promote the
Serve as receptors Provide naturally tears and mother’s release of
on lymphocyte acquired passive milk histamine and
surface. Promote immunity other agent that
agglutination produce allergic
reaction symptoms

(C) ROLES OF LYMPHOID ORGANS IN IMMUNITY

Lymphoid Function
organ
Lymph  Throughout the body, along the lymphatic vessel.
Nodes  Contains lymphocytes (mostly B cells), macrophages
& dendritic cells
 To filter (traps & fight) antigen like virus and
bacteria in the lymph
Tonsils  A kind of lymph node near the pharynx.
 Contains lymphocytes (mostly B cells).
 Protect the respiratory system from infection by
destroying bacteria and other foreign matter that enter
mouth or nose.
 In thoracic cavity, above heart, below thyroid gland.
Thymus  Endocrine gland that secretes thymosin that stimulate
proliferation and maturation of T lymphocyte.
 In upper left abdomen, under diaphragm.
Spleen  Contains lymphocytes (mostly T cells).
Bone marrow
 To filter blood by removing the worn out
erythrocytes and platelets.
 As reservoir of lymphocytes and plasma cells.
 If the spleen is damaged or removed, the individual is
more susceptible to infections
Bone  In hollow interior of long bones.
marrow  Origin of all blood cells. Stem cells divide and
differentiate into B and T lymphocyte.
 B lymphocytes multiply and mature in bone marrow.
 T lymphocyte migrate to the thymus

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COMPRESSED NOTES
(D) VARIOUS TYPES OF ANTIGEN AND ANTIBODY INTERACTIONS
Antigen is the foreign substances that trigger / induces specific immune response
Types of antigen & antibody interactions
i. Neutralization
 Antibodies attach to binding sites
of virus/ bacteria.
 Antibody neutralizes the antigen
by blocking the attachment sites
/ block adhesion of pathogen to
human body
 These microbes, now coated by
antibodies, promote phagocytosis
by macrophage
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Antigen/immunogen
 Usually are proteins, polysaccharides & glycoproteins.
 Located on the surface of pathogens (disease-causing
microorganism like bacteria or viruses).
 May exist as free molecules
 Actually, these antigen have chemical groupings
(markers) called antigenic determinant or epitopes
that different from those on host cells (receptors).
 Foreign antigen (non-self) : bacteria, virus, fungus,
 Self-antigens: MHC (major histocompatibility
complex)
 Antibodies do not directly kill, but the antibody binds
to the antigen to form an antigen-antibody complex,
which mark the invader for destruction by one of
several mechanism
ii. Agglutination iii. Precipitation
 The binding of one antibody to many  The binding of
pathogens. Agglutination is possible antibodies to soluble
because each antibody molecule has antigens.
at least two antigen-binding sites  Form large, insoluble
 Causing pathogens to agglutinate antigen-antibody
(clump together) complexes which tend
 This immobilize the pathogens and to precipitates
prevent them from spreading through  Antigen-antibody
the tissue complexes are
 Antigen-antibody complex is engulfing by
engulfing by macrophage. macrophage.
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IV. Complement fixation / activation of complement protein

1. Antibodies combine with antigen on the surface of foreign cell forming antigen-antibody complex
2. This activates the complement proteins.
3. Activated complement proteins generate a membrane attack complex. The membrane attack complex
(MAC) make pores (hole) in the foreign cell’s membrane, causing water & ions enter.
4. The foreign cell then lysed (destroyed).

11.2 DEVELOPMENT OF IMMUNITY: PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RESPONSE

Humoral and cell mediated immune responses are specific (adaptive) immunity that an organism develop during
lifetime after the exposure to antigens. Both involving:
i. Lymphocytes
 Lymphocyte is a type of leukocytes originates from stem cells in the bone marrow.
 B and T lymphocytes recognize specific antigen through their receptor on their plasma membrane. This
receptor’s shapes allow them to combine with specific antigen.
 Both lymphocytes circulate throughout the blood and lymph and concentrated in the spleen, lymph nodes
and other lymphatic tissue.
T lymphocytes B lymphocytes
Originate from the bone marrow. Soon after birth, they move to B lymphocyte cells originate and
the thymus gland where they mature. mature in the bone marrow.
Types of T lymphocytes: Types of B lymphocytes:
1. Helper T cells (TH) - Regulate immunity by secreting 1. Plasma cells - Short live to
interleukins. It aids both cell mediated (TC) & humoral produce antibodies.
response (B cells). 2. Memory B cells - Long-
2. Cytotoxic T cells (TC) – Destroy/ kill infected cell. lived and respond if same
3. Memory T cell - Long lived and remain in the body to antigen encounter later.
give rise to same TH and TC for next infection.
ii. Major Histocompatibility complex (MHC)
• A cell surface glycoprotein embedded in the plasma membrane of the cells.
• MHC acts as the cell marker /self- marker/ self-antigen and importance in self and non-self-
recognition.
• The probability that two individuals will have matching MHC sets is virtually zero unless they are identical
twins. Two main classes:
Class I MHC molecules Class II MHC molecules
- Found on almost all nucleated cells (e.g almost - Restricted to a few specialized leukocytes,
each body cell) as self marker. including macrophages, B cells and
- Infected cell digest pathogen and display antigen dendritic cells known as APC
on MHC class I to alert cytotoxic T cells. - Facilitate antigen binding to helper T cells

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iii. Antigen presenting cell (APC)

 Specialized cells that display the antigen on its
MHC class II protein is called antigen presenting cell
(APC).
 Eg: Macrophage, B cells and dendritic cells.
 When antigens enter the body, macrophage engulfs
the pathogen and degraded the antigen fragment.
 MHC (class II) functions in antigen presentation. It
binds to an antigen, bring it on the cell surface and
display the antigen to the Helper T cell. TH aids
both cell mediated & humoral response.
 Without TH, there is no immune response.
iv. Cytokines
 A substance that used by leukocytes to communicate with one another.
 Types of cytokines:
i. Interleukin-1 (IL-1); secreted by macrophage in order to activate TH cells
ii. Interleukin-2 (IL-2); secreted by TH cells and stimulate growth and differentiation of T and B cells

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(A) HUMORAL AND CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSES

TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSE: HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE
 Definition: An immune response involving production of
antibodies by B lymphocytes (B cell)

 Defense against: Free bacteria, viruses and toxin in the blood

(extracellular pathogens)

1. Macrophage engulfs extracellular pathogens and degraded

into antigen fragment.
2. The antigen fragment is displayed via Class II MHC
molecule on the cell membrane of macrophage. Macrophage
become antigen-presenting cells (APC).
3. Helper T cell (TH) will recognize and bind to the displayed
antigen on the surface of macrophage.
4. Macrophage secretes interleukin-1 (IL-I) to activate TH
cells.
5. Activated TH cells enlarge in size and proliferate by mitosis
forming clones of TH cells and memory TH cells
* At the same time, B cells can binds directly with free
antigens in body fluid. B cells are also can act as APC.
6. The activated TH cells bind to the antigen-presenting B cells
and secrete interleukin-2 (IL-II) to activate B cells. The
activated B cell enlarge in size and proliferates by mitosis to
formed clones B cells
7. Cloned B cells differentiate into large number of plasma cell
and small number of memory B cells
8. Plasma cell produce specific antibody that transport through
circulatory and lymphatic systems mainly in lymph nodes
9. Antibody will bind with antigen at antigen binding site
forming antigen-antibody interaction.

TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSE: CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE

 Definition: An immune response by T lymphocytes (T cell) directly attacks the cells that carry the specific
antigen (infected cell). Doesn’t involve antibody production.

 Defense against: Infected cell containing bacteria and viruses. Also defense against cancer and transplant
cells.

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1. Macrophage detects, engulfs and digests the pathogen.

2. The pathogen is broken down and small fragments of antigen are displayed via MHC class II on the outer
surface of macrophage . Macrophage become antigen-presenting cells (APC).
3. Helper T cell (TH) binds to the MHC-antigen complex on macrophage.
4. Macrophage secretes Interleukin 1 ( IL-1) to activate TH cells
5. Activated TH cells enlarge in size and proliferate by mitosis forming clones of TH cells and memory TH cells.
* At the same time, cytotoxic T (Tc) cell binds to a MHC-antigen complex of an infected cell.
6. The activated helper T cell will be transported to infected area and secrete interleukin 2 to activate the
cytotoxic T cells (Tc cell).
7. The activated Tc cell undergoes proliferation and differentiate to form a clone of Tc cell and memory Tc
cells.
8. The active Tc cells migrate to the infected body cells and bind with it (infected cell)
9. The activate Tc cells release:
 Perforin: create pores in the membrane of the infected cell (water and ions flow into the infected cell and
the cell lyses)
 Granzyme: hydrolyze protein in infected cells and induce apoptosis (cell death)
10. The Tc cells detaches itself before the infected cell lyses, it start to forage for other infected cells.

HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE

Activate B cell that transformed into plasma cells. Activate cytotoxic T cell.

Plasma cell secretes antibodies. Antibodies bind to Produce active (killer) cytotoxic T cells.
antigens & making the pathogens easier targets for TC bind to the infected cells or cancer cells then
phagocytes. lyses them.

Defend against extracellular pathogens like free Defend against intracellular pathogens (within
bacteria, toxins, and viruses in blood plasma, tissue infected cell). Also act against non-self-cells, e.g
fluid and lymph. *Humor = fluids transplant tissue (cells) and cancer cells.

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(B) PRIMARY AND SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSES

Primary immune responses Secondary immune responses
Definition: Proliferation and differentiation of Definition: Immune response produced during the
lymphocytes that occur during the first exposure to an second exposure to same antigen later.
antigen

1. When first time exposure to antigen. e.g. when
receive the 1st dose during vaccination
2. Very low concentration of antibodies are present
at early stage, B cell proliferates and differentiates
into plasma cells & memory B cells. Plasma cells
produce antibodies. (IgM)
3. Primary response peak up about 7- 14 days after
initial exposure to produce enough antibodies to
fight against antigen.
4. After a short time, antibody level declines due to
the short-lived antibodies and the antigen has been
removed.
5. Long-lasting memory B cells will remain in body
to trigger secondary immune response.
1. When exposed to same antigen for the second
time/ secondary exposure
2. The memory B cells will recognize the same
antigen faster
3. The memory B cells will proliferate rapidly
into plasma cell to produce antibody
4. The response is faster (2-7 days) due to high
concentration of antibodies
5. The antibodies produced have greater affinity
for the antigen.
6. The memory B cell able to recognize antigen
for longer period/ the immunity is long lasting

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THE EXAMPLE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF IMMUNITY INVOLVES BOTH PRIMARY AND

SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE: VACCINATION

Vaccine
 Vaccine is a preparation of a weakened or killed pathogen, such as a bacterium or virus, or a portion
of the pathogen's structure that stimulates antibody production.
 Vaccine is given to introduce antigen to the body
 So vaccine will trigger the primary immune response before our body encounter the same antigen for
the second time (secondary immune response)
Example of Importance
vaccine
BCG Protect against tuberculosis/ TB (serious infection of lungs)
Rubella Rubella vaccine is live weakened viruses to protect against measles, mumps and
rubella). In pregnant women can cause birth defects.
Hepatitis Protect against Hepatitis B, viral infection that attacks the liver and cause both acute
and chronic disease.
Triple antigen Protect against DPT that consist of diphtheria (respiratory tract illness), tetanus
(lockjaws) and pertussis (whooping cough).
In children and infants over 2 months of age

END OF TOPIC

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