ADP - ATP Cycle

Autotrophs
 They make their own food
 Phototrophs - with light
 Chemotrophs - with chemicals
 Ex: plants and algae
Heterotrophs
 Cannot make own food
 They get their energy from the
foods they eat
 Very dependent on biomolecules
for their energy
 Ex: human beings and animals

Biomolecules (under Heterotrophs)

1. Carbohydrates

 are molecules most commonly broken down to make ATP

 not stored in large amounts
 up to 36 ATP from one glucose

2. Lipids

 store most energy

 80% of the energy in our body
 about 146 ATP from a triglyceride

*A triglyceride is an energy-rich compound and serves as energy storage. It consists of glycerol

and three fatty acids. The three hydroxyl groups of glycerol in triglyceride are all esterified. The
triglyceride is a major component of animal and plant oils and fats.

3. Proteins

 are least likely (rare) to be broken down to make ATP

 amino acids not usually needed for energy
 about the same amount of energy as a carbohydrate (36 ATP)
 if not enough carbs nor lipids, the body uses proteins. Mostly seen on people with
metabolic disorders

Cellular Respiration and

Photosynthesis Equation
ATP

 The ENERGY CURRENCY of the cell

 an energy carrier
 has easy access in acquiring (1) glucose

Introduction to ATP and ADP

ATP
 transfers energy from the breakdown
of food molecules to cell functions.
 energy is released when a phosphate
group (Pi) is removed - EXERGONIC
REACTION
 Exergonic Reaction is the release of
usable energy
ADP
 is change into ATP when a phosphate
group is added - ENDERGONIC
REACTION
 Endergonic Reaction is the absorption
of usable energy

*ADP has 2 phosphate groups while ATP has 3 phosphate groups

Transformation of Energy (terms)

 energy - is the ability to do work

 thermodynamics - is the study of the flow and transformation of energy in the
universe

Law of Thermodynamics

 1st Law - "Energy can be converted from one form to another, but it cannot be
created nor destroyed"
 2nd Law - "Energy cannot be converted without the law of usable energy"

Cyclic Biochemical Process (The ADP - ATP Cycle process)

 (ADP) Phosphorylation - addition of phosphate

 (ADP) Dehydration synthesis - removes a molecule of water from two simpler
molecules
 (ATP) Hydrolysis - addition of H2O
Linear Equation and Phosphoanhydride bond explained…

 The bonds are unstable because phosphates are negatively charged and try to repel
each other, but they are held together by weak hydrogen bonds (madaling ma-break).
 The energy released ay ‘di galing sa na-free na phosphate but bc of the unstable bond
(2nd law)
*that's why there is a need for H2O in the bond
Cellular Respiration
Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP

The breakdown of organic molecules is exergonic

 Fermentation - is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O2

 Aerobic respiration - consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP
 Anaerobic respiration - is similar to aerobic respiration but consumes
compounds other than O2
 Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often
used to refer to aerobic respiration
 Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumed as fuel, it is helpful
to trace cellular respiration with the sugar glucose

Cellular Respiration Equation: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP +

heat)

Introduction to Cellular Respiration

C6H12O6 + 602 → 6CO2 + 6H20

 A catabolic pathway (breakdown)

 Oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with organic compounds.

Involves three stages:

 Glycolysis
 Krebs Cycle (citric acid cycle)
 Electron Transport Chain (oxidative phosphorylation)
What Is ATP?

 Adenosine Triphosphate
 Energy used by all Cells
 An organic molecule containing high-energy Phosphate bonds

 Use by our cells to perform cellular activities

What Does ATP Do for You?

 It supplies YOU with ENERGY!

How Do We Get Energy From ATP?

 By breaking the high energy bonds between the last two phosphates in ATP
NADH and FADH2

 NAD+ traps electrons from glucose to make NADH (energy stored)

 Similarly, FAD+ stores energy as FADH2

 Instead of phosphate yung binibigay nila to create

ATP… are electrons

Where Does Cellular Respiration Take Place?

It actually takes place in two parts of the cell:

 Glycolysis occurs in the Cytoplasm

 Krebs Cycle & ETC Take place in the Mitochondria
 This is why the mitochondria is the power house of the cell because majority of ATPs are
produced here especially in ETC
Review of Mitochondria Structure

 Smooth Outer Membrane

 Folded inner membrane
 Folds called Cristae
 Space inside cristae called the Matrix
Glycolysis
Introduction to Glycolysis

 Means “splitting of sugar”  “glycol” – sugar and “lysis” – to breakdown

 Occurs in the cytosol of the cell
 Partially oxidizes glucose (6 Carbon) into two pyruvate (3 Carbon) molecules.
 Occurs whether or not oxygen is present.
 An exergonic process, (meaning energy is released) most of the energy
harnessed is conserved in the high-energy electrons of NADH and in the
phosphate bonds of ATP
Glycolysis Process (9 steps that are divided into 2 categories; 1-4 preparatory phase or
energy investment, and 5-9 energy payoff phase)

Glycolysis PHASE 1
  First it will go in the series of enzymes… with the use of Hexokinase (found in tissues
primarily in muscle) / Glucokinase (in the liver). Ginagawa nila is to add a phosphate
into our glucose molecule and will be converted to Glucose-6-Phosphate (phosphate
nagkaroon ng bond sa 6th carbon). Saan nanggaling yung phosphate? We utilize one
ATP that will be breakdown to ADP… Convert Glucose-6-Phosphate to Fructose-6-
Phosphate (the converted isomer) with the use of the enzyme
Phosphohexoseisomerase or Phosphogluciosmomerase… then it will be converted with
the enzyme phophofructokinase where we added another phosphate and Fructose-
1-6-Bisphosphate is made (where the phosphate will be found at carbon 1&6). Saan ulit
nanggaling yung phosphate? We utilize another one ATP that will be breakdown to
ADP… we utilize the enzyme Aldolase to convert Fructose-1-6-Bisphosphate so we can
move to the production of G3P and Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (the isomer of G3P)
where they both have 3 carbons and attach phosphates (2) from Fructose-1-6-
Bisphosphate. The G3P will be use in the 2nd phase where Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate
will be converted to G3P by an enzyme, Isomerase.  where 2 G3P are made
Glycolysis PHASE 2
  We will only use the G3P from the 1 st phase. With the use of G3P we will make use of an
enzyme, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) where tatanggalan
lang ng hydride (consists of 2 electrons) yung G3P. That electron will be given to
NAD+ where it will be reduced to NADH (storage of electron that will be used in ETC).
aside from that Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase pull free/random
phosphate from the environment where it was added in the equation and was converted
to 1,3-Bisphosphate Glycerate with the addition of the free phosphate. From 1,3-
Bisphosphate Glycerate we will convert it to 3-Phosphate Glycerate (sa structure
natanggalan ng isang phosphate) with the use of Phosphoglycerokinase (another
phosphate)… saan mapupunta yung phosphate na tinanggalan sa 1,3-Bisphosphate
Glycerate? Napunta sya sa ADP where we will produce ATP (1). Then it will be
converted to a molecule called 2-Phosphate Glycerate by utilizing the enzyme,
Phosphoglyceromutase (Mutation). Then, it will be converted to Phosphoenol
Pyruvate (naadd yung hydroxyl ‘enol’) with the use of the enzyme Enolase…
additionally we had produced a H2O from the double bond production in enol.
Lastly, we will convert it to Pyruvate by the use of Pyruvate Kinase… ginawa natin dito
is tinanggalan ng phosphate sa phosphoenol pyruvate and in-add natin sa ADP to be
converted to ATP (2)…(either fermentation or diretso krebs)
Net of Glycolysis

 Takes place in the Cytoplasm

 Anaerobic (Doesn’t Use Oxygen)
 Requires input of 2 ATP
  Glucose split into two molecules of Pyruvate
 Also produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP

 In Anaerobic respiration, the pyruvate will be converted to lactic acid (na-

prproduce during work out tas sumakit ang muscles kugn saan pinapababa yugn
PH level) or Ethanol (alcoholic beverages)  tapos na yung process
 In Aerobic respiration, we will proceed to the next process

Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA (Junction)


To
convert

pyruvate to Acetyl Coa… we will use a complex named Pyruvate Dehydrogenase

complex is using three enzymes to carry out this process… First, the Pyruvate
Dehydrogenase (E1) will (1st task) remove the one carbon from the pyruvate and be
converted to CO2 in the process of oxidative decarboxylation (this process always
resulting molecule is CO2) because it is a pyruvate dehydrogenase, may na-release
na electrons. Second, the enzyme dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase (E2) with the
free electron kanina… na-convert yung pyruvate into Acetyl. The acetyl group will use
E2 will attract another molecule which is the Coenzyme A and they will form the
molecule Acetyl Coa (end product). Third, the enzyme dihydrolipoamide
dehydrogenase (E3) the freed electrons kanina will be pick up by NAD+ that will be
reduce to NADH.
Product of the Acetyl CoA
Special Enzymes: (they regulate the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex)
 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase (E1) – involve yung phosphate. E1 will attach a
phosphate to the complex where the conversion to acetyl coa will stop for a mean time
and the krebs will not start (kapag sobrang daming energy sa katawan)
 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Phosphatase (E2) – what if na consume na yugn energy na
yon? The E2 will be utilized where it will attach to the complex, removing the phosphate
that was attach and kapag natanggal to we can now resume the conversion to acetyl
coa.

*Continuation of the Cellular Respiration Process (if it is an aerobic)

Krebs Cycle
The Citric Acid Cycle

 also known as the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle

 Krebs Cycle (Hans Adolf Krebs)
 the cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate, generating 1 ATP, 3
NADH, and 1 FADH2 per turn
 Fritz Albert Lipmann: discovered CoA

Introduction to Krebs Cycle

 Requires Oxygen (Aerobic)

 Cyclical series of oxidation reactions that give off CO2 and produce one ATP per
cycle
 Turns twice per glucose molecule
 Produces two ATP
 Takes place in the matrix of mitochondria

Krebs Cycle Process

With
Wethe willuse of thecitrate
convert enzyme to Citrate
its isomer
Synthase to create
(same carbons) Isocitrate withCitrate… from the
Oxaloacetate will bind
use of the enzyme Aconitase… we with Acetyl
Coa
will then
remove Citratethe Synthase
hydroxyl will group
remove
(HO) and 1 hydrogenato
the Coenzyme and the to
citrate
Acetyl
creategroup H2O… will we willbind with the
replace
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will convert create
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water in theto
CoaWe will convert Succinylgroup
will
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creating Acetyl
with the
isocitrate useCoAof toa-
then paulit –
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use of Succinyl
- NOT
where HIGHLY
another REGULATED
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- HIGHLY Synthetase REGULATED to remove
removed and pick
that was attached. In the process up by NAD+
thatfree
we willabe reducedenergy
potential to NADH whereand
another carbon will
it is utilized by the inorganic Pi be removed
nd
Weto be
and converted
GDP&ATP
will to CO2
convertto Succinate
form ADP(2toto).
Additional
ATP
Fumarate (firstwithprocess
and useisATP
theonly ofthe addition
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will convert is where
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reduce to FADH2
REGULATED meaning
(a-K)
electrons will remove to the
isocitrate and pick up by NAD+
that will be reduced to NADH.
After non Isocitrate Dehydrogenase
will remove a carbon from
isocitrate and be converted to
CO2will
We (1st)convert fumarate to malate
with the use of fumarase or
fumarate hydratase where H2O is
added in the equation
 We will convert malate to
oxaloacetate with the use of malate
dehydrogenase where it will
remove electrons that will be pick
up by NAD+ and to be reduced to
NADH (3rd).

After that it will be recycled again as

the name suggest it is a cycle

Krebs Cycle Product

Krebs Cycle

 Each turn of the Krebs Cycle also produces 3NADH, 1FADH2, and 2CO2
 Therefore, For each Glucose molecule, the Krebs Cycle produces 6NADH,
2FADH2, 4CO2, and 2ATP
Electron Transport Chain (Oxidative Phosphorylation)
Introduction to Electron Transport Chain

 Requires oxygen, the final electron acceptor

▪ For every FADH2 molecule – 2 ATPs are produced
▪ For every NADH molecule – 3 ATPs are produced
 Chemiosmosis – the production of ATP using the energy of H+ gradients across
membranes to phosphorylate ADP
 Oxidative phosphorylation – formation of ATP from the transfer of electrons
from NADH or FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron carriers

Concept of ATP Synthase

 a protein in the inner membrane in the mitochondria

 uses the energy of the ion gradient to power ATP synthesis
 for every H+ ion that flows through ATP synthase, one ATP can be formed from
ADP
Oxidative Phosphorylation Process

4 Protein Complex of ETC

*Ubiquinone is CoQ
Electron Transport Chain Process

Inhibitors
Chemiosmosis Process

 proton will enter to let the atp synthase to…Clockwise direction yung rotation. From that
motion may na-release na potential energy that will be utilize by ADP and Pi to create a
bond to create ATP wherein 1 proton is equal to 1 ATP being produce using ATP
synthase in the process of Chemiosmosis

Cellular Respiration Summary

Total Net of all Processes (from G to ETC)

Cellular Respiration in Summary

 Glycolysis • 2 ATP • 2 NADH → 4-6 ATP (Depends on how this NADH molecule
gets to the ETC)
 Formation of Acetyl CoA • 2 NADH → 6 ATP
 Krebs Cycle • 2 ATP • 6 NADH → 18 ATP • 2 FADH2 → 4 ATP Grand Total =
36-38 ATP

Fermentation
Introduction to Fermentation

 Occurs when O2 is NOT present (anaerobic)

 Called Lactic Acid fermentation in muscle cells (makes muscles tired)
 Called Alcoholic fermentation in yeast (produces ethanol)
 Nets only 2 ATP

Products of Fermentation
 If the cell is a bacteria or Yeast  2 ethanol and 2 carbons
 If the cell is Human and animal  2 Lactic acid
Cellular Respiration Quiz
1. The process of splitting larger molecules into smaller ones is an aspect of metabolism
called catabolism
2. A chemical process during which a substance gains electrons is called reduction
3. Dehydrogenase enzymes remove hydrogen atoms from fuel molecules and transfer
them to acceptors such as NAD+ and FAD
4. Where do most ATP in eukaryotic cells are produced? Mitochondria
5. Which of the following statements is FALSE? glycolysis occurs in the mitochondrion
6. The reactions of ___ take place within the cytosol of eukaryotic cells. glycolysis
7. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about glycolysis? glycolysis marks the start of
only the aerobic reactions of cellular respiration
8. Which stage of aerobic respiration requires ATP? Glycolysis
9. Yeast cells carry out alcohol fermentation, in which ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide are
the final waste products. How many carbon dioxide is/are produced in this process? 2
10. Which of the following is a common feature of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
Glycolysis
11. What is the process that uses NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP? Oxidative
phosphorylation
12. Cramps during exercise are caused by what? lactic acid fermentation
13. What is the final electron acceptor during oxidative phosphorylation? oxygen
14. The energy released by electrons moving down the ETC causes pumping of H+
15. Which of the following processes produces the most ATP? chemiosmosis
16. Which of the following is necessary for oxidative phosphorylation to occur? oxygen
17. Which of the following is the product of the Krebs cycle? ATP, FADH, and NADH
18. In the presence of oxygen, all cells synthesize ATP via the process of glycolysis. Many
cells also can metabolize pyruvate if oxygen is not present via what process?
Fermentation
19. What does the high concentration of protons in the inner mitochondrial space relative to
the mitochondrial matrix represents? potential energy
20. ETC is located on the inner mitochondrial membrane
21. The ETC receives electrons from NADH
22. The protein complex Succinate Dehydrogenase Complex receives electrons from which
of the following? FADH2
23. How many NADH molecules are produced in Kreb's Cycle using one molecule of
glucose? 6
24. As electrons travel down the ETC, they release energy
25. When the H+ re-enter the matrix, they activate an enzyme called ATP synthase
26. When electrons are transferred to oxygen at the end of the ETC, they also unite with H+
to produce: H2O
27. Which of the following protein complex in the ETC receives electrons from NADH?
NADH DEHYDROGENASE COMPLEX
28. In the first step of the citric acid cycle, acetyl CoA reacts
with oxaloacetate to form citrate
29. During pyruvate oxidation, enzyme 1 or Pyruvate Dehydrogenase catalyzes the
production of which of the following products? CO2
30. Which multiprotein complex in the electron transport chain is responsible for reducing
molecular oxygen? Complex IV
31. Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable the cells to produce ATP without the use
of oxygen. (true)
32. The term cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic processes. (true)
33. Fermentation is a complete degradation of sugars or other fuel that occurs without the
use of oxygen. (incomplete)
34. The breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide is completed in the electron transport chain.
(Krebs Cycle)
35. ATP synthase is the enzyme that makes the bulk of the ATP from ADP and Pi by
chemiosmosis. (true)
36. Which of the following characteristics below represent AEROBIC RESPIRATION?
(Maximum number of answers:5)
- Begins with the breakdown of sugar
- Occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondrion
- Uses oxygen as electron acceptor
- Glucose + Oxygen yields Co2 + H2O + ATP
- Involves pyruvate
37. Which of the following characteristics below represent ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION?
(Maximum number of answers: 8)
- Begins with the breakdown of sugar
- Inefficient
- Glucose is converted to ethyl alcohol
- Less amount of energy produced
- Glucose is converted to lactic acid
- Takes place in the cytoplasm only
- Involves pyruvate
- Does not use oxygen
38. Which of the following characteristics below represent both the AEROBIC and AEROBIC
RESPIRATION? (Maximum number of answers: 2)
- Begins with the breakdown of sugar
- Involves pyruvate