Notes DJJ20073 - Fluid Mechanics - Suzilawati Alias PDF

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION OF FLUID
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF FLUID
1.1 UNDERSTAND FLUID
1.1.1 DEFINITION OF FLUID
What is a Fluid?
Fluid is a substance which can flow.

Technically the flow of any substance means a continuous relative motion
between different particles of the substance.
Fluid can flow because the continuous relative motion between the particles of
the fluid when shear force is acting on it.
1.1.2 Fluid Term
The term fluid includes both liquid and gases.

The main difference between a liquid and a gas is that the volume of a liquid
remains definite because it takes the shape of the surface on or in which it
comes into contact, whereas a gas occupies the complete space available in the
container in which it is kept.
SUZILAWATI ALIAS/ DJJ20073 1

1.1.3 Distinguish between liquid, gas and solid
The following table summarizes properties of gases, liquids, and solids and identifies the
microscopic behavior responsible for each property.
Some Characteristics of Gases, Liquids and Solids and the Microscopic Explanation for
the Behavior
Gas Liquid Solid
State
Volume form No definite Has a definite volume but Definite volume, has
shape volume, form or no definite form or shape. own shape or form.
compressibility shape compressible Non compressive Non compressible
tendency
Arrangement Random far apart Random close Definite close

and closeness
of particles
Motion of fast moderate slow

particles
Attraction
between Little to none moderate strong
particles
Boiling point Lower than room Higher than room Much higher than room
temperature temperature temperature

1.2 DEFINITION OF PRESSURE

Force
Pr essure =
Area Over which forces is applied
F
Pr essure =
A
units = N / m 2
1.2.1 The type of pressure
No. Type of pressure Definition

1. Atmospheric Pressure, pressure on the earth's surface caused by the
Patm weight of air above it.
2. Gauge Pressure,PG pressure was measured by using pressure
measurement
the gauge pressure can be either positive or
negative depending on whether the pressure is
above atmospheric pressure (a positive value) or
below atmospheric pressure ( a negative value)
3. Absolute Pressure, PA the pressure equal to the algebraic sum
atmospheric and gauge pressure
Absolute Pr essure = gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
PA = PG + Patm
4. Vacuum,Pv In a perfect vacuum which is completely empty

space, the pressure is zero.
1.2.2 Diagram of the relationship between the type of pressure

1.2.3 Measurement of pressure
Example 1.7
What is the pressure gauge of air in the cylinder if the atmosferic gauge is 101.3 kN/m2 and
absolute pressure is 460 x 103 N/m2.
Solution:
Example 1.8
When measured with a pressure gauge, found the pressure in a cylinder is 325 N/m2. If the
atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/m2, what is the absolute pressure in the cylinder?
Solution:
Example 1.9
What is the absolute pressure of a tire that is pumped if the atmospheric pressure is 1.1 bar
and gauge pressure 2.0 bar. Give your answer in kN/m2.
Solution

1.3 Fluid Pressure and Depth
Cross-sectional
Liquid of specific area, A
weight, 
Figure 2.1
Weight of the liquid contained in the cylinder:
𝑊 = 𝜔ℎ𝐴 with,  = Specific weight of the liquid

(where is water = 1000 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 )
ℎ =Height of liquid in the cylinder
𝐴 =Area of cylinder base
The pressure at the bottom of the cylinder,
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝑷= 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝜔ℎ𝐴
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑃 = 𝜔ℎ
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ with; 𝜔 = 𝜌𝑔
This equation shows that the intensity of pressure at any point, in a liquid is
proportional to its depth as measured from the surface (as  is constant for the given
liquid )
Then, the pressure can be expressed in either one of the following two ways :
a) As force per unit area ( N/m2)
b) As height of equivalent liquid column

SELF-ASSESMENT
Determine the pressure in units of N/m2 in the following circumstances:

(Given the density of water is 1000 kg/m3)
i. Depth of 600 cm below the surface of the water

ii. Depth of 9000 mm below the surface of the oil with relative density of 0.75

CHAPTER 2 : PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUID DJJ20073/ FLUID MECHANICS
CHAPTER 2 : PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUID

2.1 Physical Properties of Fluid
NO PROPERTIES SYMBOL DEFINITION EQUATION UNITS EXAMPLES
water = 1000 kg/m3

1. Mass density  Mass per unit volume air= 1.23 kg/m3
The ratio of the weight s water = 1.0
2. Specific gravity s of the substance to the
weight of an equal of
water at 4 ºC
Weight per unit volume
3. Specific weight 
Inverse of mass density

4. Specific volume υ
The ability of the fluid in

5. Viscosity µ resisting these shearing
stresses
5
Example 2.1
Given the volume and mass of crude oil is 7.3 x106 cm3 and 6500 kg. Determine:
i. Mass density
ii. Relative density/specific gravity
iii. Specific weight
Penyelesaian:
i. Mass density
ii. Relative density/specific gravity
iii. Specific
6
Example 2.2
Given specific weight of fluid is 6.54 kN / m 3 and its mass is 8.3 kg , calculate the following:
i. Volume of fluid
ii. Specific volume of fluid
iii. Density of fluid
Solution:
i. Volume of fluid
ii. specific volume of fluid,
iii. Density of fluid
1
Example 2.3
Given oil specific gravity is 0.74. Find:

i. Density of oil
ii. Specific weight of oil
iii. Specific volume of oil
Solution:
i. Density of oil, 
ii. Specific weight of oil, w
iii. Specific volume of oil, v
1
Example 2.4
If weight oil is 4600 N and the volume is 5.6 x109 mm3, calculate:
i. Mass density
ii. Specific weight
iii. Relative density
Solution:
i. mass density
ii. Specific weight
iii. Relative density
8
Example 2.5
Determine the mass density of the fluid in terms of kg/m3 if the mass of 450 g
contained in a volume of 9 cm3. Then determine the specific volume in m3/kg and
relative density if given the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Solution:
9
Exercise
1. What is the mass density, of fluids if in kg/m3 if mass is 450 g and the volume is
9 cm3. (  = 50 000 kg/m3)
2. What is the specific weight, of fluid in kN/m3 if the weight of fluid is 10N and
the volume is 500 cm3 .( = 20 kN/m3)
3. What is the specific gravity of fluid in question 2. (s = 2.04)
4. What is the specific volume, of fluid in question 1. (υ = 2 x 10-5 m3/kg)
5. Given oil specific gravity is 0.89, find:
a) Density of oil ( 890 kg/m3)
b) Specific weight of oil (8730.9 N/m3)
c) Specific volume of oil (υ = 1.1236 x 10-3 m3/kg)
6. What is the gauge pressure of air in the cylinder when the atmospheric pressure
is 101.3 kN/m2 and absolute pressure is 512 k N/m2. (410.7 kN/m2)
7. Calculate the specific weight of fluid, if the weight W and the volume of fluid, V
respectively is 17 kN and 425 m3. Then determine the mass density of the fluid.
( = 40 N/m3 ,  = 4.0775 kg/m3)
8. Determine the mass density of the fluid in kg/m3 if mass 245 g contained in a
volume of 4.3 cm3.(  = 56976.74 kg/m3)
Good Luck…
10
Chapter 3:FLUID STATICS DJJ20073/FLUID MECHANICS
CHAPTER 3: FLUID STATICS

3.1 PASCAL LAW
3.1.1 DEFINITION OF PASCAL’S LAW
Px P1 Pascal's principle states

P4
that any change in
pressure applied to an
enclosed liquid will be
P3 transmitted to every
P2 point of the fluid without
Py any change in
magnitude.
Pascal Law;
P1 = P2 = P3 = P4 = PX = PY = PZ
Figure 3.1
3.1.2 HYDRAULIC JACK
Figure 3.2
1|Page DJJ20073
F
Area ,
a
W
p1 p2
F Area A
P1 = W
a P2 =
A
Figure 3.3
Concept:
1) Small force applied to the smaller piston and forces oil or water out into the large
cylinder.
2) Large cylinder moves upward and lift the load, W.
Hydraulic Jack: The piston are at the same level
F
Area ,
a W
p1 p2
Area,A P1 = P2
F W
=
a A
Figure 3.4
2|Page DJJ20073
Hydraulic Jack: Small piston below the larger piston
W Area, A
Area ,
p2 P1 = P2
a h F W
= + gh
a A
p1
Figure 3.5
Hydraulic Jack : Large piston below the smaller piston
Area ,
a
p1
h W
p2 Area, A
W F
P2 = P1 = P2 P1 = + gh
A a
F W
+ gh =
a A
Figure 3.6
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Example 3.1
A force, F = 1600 kg is applied to the smaller cylinder of hydraulic jack. The diameter of small
piston is 50 cm while the diameter of larger piston is 70 cm. What load, W can be lifted on the
larger piston if:
i. The pistons are at the same level.
ii. The large piston is 0.95 m below the smaller piston.
iii. The small piston is 0.42 m below the larger piston.
Solution:
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Example 3.2
A hydraulic jack with diameter of 5 cm at small piston and 8 cm at large piston. The force, F
applied to the small piston to lift a load of 1100 kg which is placed on the large piston. Calculate
the force F, so that both pistons are at the same level.
Solution:
5|Page DJJ20073
Example 3.3
Large diameter piston of a hydraulic jack oil is three times larger than the diameter of the small
piston. Larger piston diameter is 630mm and is required to support the load 40kN. Calculate the
force required on the small piston to lift the piston as high as 2m above the small piston. oil
=890.4 kg/m2.
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Exercise
1. Define Pascal's Law.

2. A force F = 1110 N is applied on the small piston of a hydraulic jack that has a surface
area of 25 cm2. Larger piston diameter of 25 cm. Assume that the fluid used is water.
Specify:
a. What is the load, W is supposed to apply if both of the piston are at the same
level. (W = 21.80kN)
b. What is the load, W if the larger piston is 0.75 m below the smaller piston.
(W = 22.116 kN)
3. A hydraulic jack used to raise a load in a vehicle. Small cylinder diameter 94 mm and
320 mm diameter large cylinders. Determine the force required to lift a 1200 kg vehicle
mass. (F = 1.016 kN)
4. Two cylinders, each containing a piston connected by a pipe filled with water. Diameter
cylinders, each is 80 mm and 650 mm respectively. small piston surface is 7 m above the
surface of the larger piston. What force on the smaller piston required to maintain a load
of 4000kg on the larger piston.
(F = 249.28 kN)
5. A hydraulic jack with a relative density of oil is 0.75 work with a small diameter piston
and larger piston 45 mm and 135 mm respectively. Force of 1500 N applied to the small
piston is 0.65 m higher than the large piston. Calculate the load, W to be lifted by the
large piston. (W = 13.56 kN)
6. A force, F = 850 N applied to the small piston of a hydraulic jack that has a surface area
of 15 cm2. Large piston has a surface area of 150 cm2.
a. What is the weight, W is supposed to apply if the piston same level.

b. Determine the value of W when the larger piston is 0.45 m below the small
piston.
Okey..prepared for
Quiz 2...
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3.2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
3.2.1 MANOMETERS
a) Simple Manometer
ρP
ρQ
Figure 2.6
ρP
Let, h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb

h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb
p A = Pressure in the pipe at A
ρP = Mass density of the light liquid
ρQ = Mass density of the heavy liquid
The pressure in the left-hand limb and the right-hand limb above the datum line is equal
Pressure pB at B = Pressure p C at C
Fluid P
Imagine
that the
right limb
is hidden.
Figure 3.8
8|Page DJJ20073
p B = Pressure, p A at A + Pressure due to depth, h1 of fluid P

= p A +  P gh1
Thus pressure in the right-hand limb above the datum line;
Imagine
that the left
limb is Liquid Q
hidden.
Figure 3.9
p C = Pressure p D at D + Pressure due to depth h2 of liquid Q

Pc = P atm +  Q gh2
PB = PC
p A +  P gh1 = Patm +  Q gh2
 p A = Patm +  Q gh2 −  P gh1
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Example 3.4
A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in Figure is used to measure the gauge
pressure of a fluid P of density ρ = 1000 kg/m3. If the density of the liquid Q is 13.6
103 kg/m3, what will be the gauge pressure at A if h1 = 0.15 m and h2 = 0.25 m above
BC. Take into consideration Patm = 101.3 kN/m2.
Liquid Q
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Example 3.5
A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in Figure is used to measure the gauge pressure of oil
of relative density s = 0.88. If the relative density of the mercury is 13.6, what will be the gauge
pressure at M if h1 = 30 cm and h2 = 20 cm above BC. Take into consideration patm = 0.
h2 = 20 cm
water
h1 = 30 cm
mercury
11 | P a g e DJJ20073
b) Differential Manometer (Manometer Beza)
* used for measuring the

difference of pressure
between two points in a
pipe, or in two different
pipes.
Figure 3.10
Let h = Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb above the datum line.
h1 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right-hand limb above the datum line
h2 = Height of the light liquid in the right-hand limb above the datum line
pA = Pressure in the pipe A,
pB = Pressure in the pipe B,
ωP = Specific weight of the light liquid
ωQ = Specific weight of the heavy liquid
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Example 3.6
A U tube manometer measures the pressure difference between two points A and B in a liquid.
The U tube contains mercury. Calculate the difference in pressure if h1 =5 cm, h2 = 5 cm
3 2
and h3 = 15 cm. The liquid at A and B is water (ω = 9.81 × 10 N/m ) and the specific gravity of
mercury is 13.6.
water
h2
h3
mercury
P Q
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Example 3.7
In the figure below, fluid P is water and fluid Q is mercury (specific gravity=13.6). If the
pressure difference between A and B is 35 kN/m2, b = 25 cm and c = 1.2 m, what is the
difference in level d ?
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c) Inverted Differential Manometer (Manometer Terbalik)
Fluid Q * used for measuring the

difference of pressure
between two points in a
pipe, or in two different
pipes.
Fluid P
Figure 3.11
Let h = Height of the heavy liquid in the left-hand limb below the datum line,
h1= Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb below the datum line ,
h2= Height of the light liquid in the right-hand limb below the datum line,
ωP= Specific weight of the light liquid
ωQ= Specific weight of the heavy liquid
Pressure pC at C = Pressure p D at D
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Example 3.8
In the figure below, water and oil (specific gravity = 0.95) used to measure difference of pressure
in two pipes. . If b = 97 cm and a = 20 cm and c =15 cm, what is the difference in pressure in
kN/m2 between A and B?
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Example 3.9
In the figure below, water and oil (specific gravity = 0.95) used to measure difference of pressure
in two pipes. . If M = 80 cm and N =25 cm, what is the difference in pressure in kN/m2 between P
and Q?
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SELF-ASSESSMENT
A simple U tube manometer is in stable condition as shown in figure. Find the relative density of
liquid B if mass density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and gravity is 9.81 m/s2.
P2=50N/m2
P1=70N/m2  fluid B
 fluid A = 700 kg/m3
18 | P a g e DJJ20073
Exercise
1. What is the gauge pressure of the water at A if h1 = 0.6 m and the mercury in the right
hand limb, h2 = 0.9 m as shown in the figure below?
2. In the figure below, fluid at A is water and fluid B is mercury (s =13.6). What will be the
difference in level h if the pressure at X is 140 kN/m2 and a =1.5 m?
3. Assuming that the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/m2 find the absolute pressure at A in
the figure below when
a) fluid P is water, fluid Q is mercury s = 13.6, a = 1 m and h = 0.4 m.
b) fluid P is oil s = 0.82, fluid Q is brine s = 1.10, a = 20 cm and h = 55 cm.
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4. In the figure below, fluid P is water and fluid Q is mercury (specific gravity=13.6). If the
pressure difference between A and B is 35 kN/m2, a = 1 m and b = 30 cm, what is the
difference in level h?
5. According to the figure in question 4, fluid P is oil (specific gravity = 0.85) and fluid Q is
water. If a = 120 cm, b = 60 cm and h = 45 cm, what is the difference in pressure in kN/m2
between A and B?
6. In the figure below, fluid Q is water and fluid P is oil (specific gravity = 0.9). If h = 69
cm and z = 23 cm, what is the difference in pressure in kN/m2 between A and B?
7. In question 6, fluid Q is water and fluid P is air. Assuming that the specific weight of air
is negligible, what is the pressure difference in kN/m2 between A and B?
8. Assuming that the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/m2, find height of (x) is needed if
h1=0.45 m, h2 = x m. Given mass density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and
PA = 88.98 kN/m2.
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9. In the figure below show U-Tube simple manometer used to measure difference pressure.
If difference pressure between X and Y is 47 kN/m2, h= 1.2 m and a = 43 cm, find the
height of (b).
10. The figure below U-Tube Inverted differential manometer used to measure difference
pressure between two pipes. If oil with relative density 0.97, difference pressure between
M and N is -55 kN/m2, C = 40 cm, h = 75 cm, find the value of (f).
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11. A manometer containing mercury is used to measure the pressure of an oil (specific
gravity is 0.89) as shown in the figure below. Calculate the pressure at M if the difference
level of mercury is 45cm.
12. A manometer containing mercury is used to measure the pressure of an oil (specific
gravity is 0.82) as shown in the figure below. Calculate the pressure difference between
A and B if h1=160cm h2=50cm and h3=80cm.
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PIEZOMETER (Pressure Tube)
A Piezometer is used for

measuring pressure
inside a vessel or pipe in
which liquid is there.
By determining the
height to which liquid
rises and using the
relation P1 = ρgh, gauge
pressure of the liquid
can be determined
Example 3.10
A pressure tube is used to measure the pressure of oil (mass density, 640 kg / m 3 ) in a pipeline. If
the oil rises to a height of 1.2 above the centre of the pipe, what is the gauge pressure in N / m 2 at
that point? ( gravity = 9.81 m/s2)
Solution
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BAROMETERS
a) Mercury Barometer
A Barometer is a device
used for measuring
atmospheric pressure.
The atmospheric
pressure is calculated
from the relation
Patm = ρgh
There are two types of
Barometer; Mercury
Barometer and Aneroid
Barometer.
Figure 3.12
b) Aneroid Barometer
Figure 3.13
24 | P a g e DJJ20073
Example 3.11
What is the atmospheric pressure in N/m2 if the level of mercury in a Barometer tube is 760 mm
above the level of the mercury in the bowl? Given the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
Solution to Example 3.11
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3.3 BOURDON GAUGE
Bourdon Gauge is used

to measure pressure
differences that are more
than 1.2 bar.
Figure 3.14
Exercise
1. What is the maximum gauge pressure of water of height 1.5 m that can be measured by a
Piezometer ?. If the relative density of fluid is 0.85 what would the maximum measurable
gauge pressure? ( P=14.715 kN/m2, P=12.5 kN/m2)
2. A barometer showed a reading of 700mm of mercury. Given sr = 13.6. Calculate:
a) Atmospheric pressure in the unit kN/m2 (P= 93.39 kN/m2)
b) High column of water needed to produce the pressure.(h = 9.52 m)
3. The gauge pressure in a cylinder is 256 kN/m2. Specify:
a) Pressure in terms of height for water and oil( s=0.89) (hw=26.096m,hoil =29.321m)
b)The absolute pressure in the cylinder when the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/m2.
(P= 357.3 kN/m2)
4. A bourdon gauges attached on the boiler shows a reading of 7 bar. If the atmospheric
pressure is 1.013 bar, determine the absolute pressure of the steam boiler in the unit
kN/m2.(P= 801.3 kN/m2)
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3.4 BUOYANCY
2.2.1 Principle of Archimedes

Up thrust on body = weight of fluid displaced by the body Archimedes
Principle states that
the buoyant force
on a submerged
object is equal to
the weight of the
fluid that is
displaced by the
object.
Figure 3.15 Buoyancy
Upthrust on upper part, R1 = 1 gv1

acting through G1, the centroid of v1,
Upthrust on lower part,R2 =  2 gv2

acting through G2, the centroid of v2,
Total upthrust = 1 gv1 +  2 gv2
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Example 3.12
A rectangular pontoon has a width B of 6 m, a length l of 12 m, and a draught D of 1.5 m

in fresh water (density 1000 kg/m3). Calculate :
a) the weight of the pontoon

b) its draught in sea water (density 1025 kg/m3)
c) the load (in kilo Newtons) that can be supported by the pontoon in fresh water if
the maximum draught permissible is 2 m.
When the pontoon is floating in an unloaded condition,
Uptrust on immersed volume = weight of pontoon
Since the uptrust is equal to weight of the fluid displaced,
Weight of pontoon = weight of fluid displaced,
So, W =   g  B l  D
a) In fresh water,  = 1000 kg / m 3 and D = 1.5 m ;
b) In the sea water,  = 1025 kg / m 3 ; therefore,
c) For maximum draught of 2 m in fresh water,
28 | P a g e DJJ20073
Example 3.13
Consider a barge filled with rock. The barge is 7 m wide, 17 m long, and 2.5 m deep. If
the barge and rock weigh 2.0 MN, determine the depth of submergence of the barge in
water as shown in the figure below.
Rock
Barge
2.5 m
d
17 m
Submergence Depth
The specific weight of water is 9,800 N/m3 (or 9.8 kN/m3). From the buoyancy concept,
the volume of displaced fluid (water) must balance the weight of the barge. Thus,
29 | P a g e DJJ20073
Exercise
1. A rectangular pontoon 5.4 m wide by 12 m long, has a draught of 1.5 m in fresh water
(density 1000 kg/m3). Calculate:
(a) the mass of the pontoon,
(b) its draught in the sea water (density 1025 kg/m3).
2. A ship floating in sea water displaces 115 m3. Find
a) the weight of the ship if sea water has a density of 1025 kg/m3,
b) the volume of fresh water (density 1000 kg/m3) which the ship would displace.
30 | P a g e DJJ20073
Chapter 4: FLUID DYNAMICS
CHAPTER 4: FLUID DYNAMICS
4.1 TYPES OF FLOW
No. Types of Flow Definition Examples
The cross-sectional area and velocity of Example: a wave

1 Steady flow the stream may vary from cross-section, travelling along a channel.
but for each cross-section they do not
change with time.
The cross-sectional area and velocity of Example: flow through a
2 Uniform flow the stream of fluid are the same at each pipe of uniform bore
successive cross-section. running completely full.
Also known as streamline or viscous

3 Laminar flow flow, in which the particles of the fluid
move in an orderly manner and retain
the same relative positions in successive
cross-sections.
Turbulent flow is a non steady flow in

4 Turbulent which the particles of fluid move in a
flow disorderly manner, occupying different
relative positions in successive cross-
sections.
4.2 Discharge and Mass Flow rate
4.2.1 Discharge
Q = A.v 𝑄 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑚3 /𝑠)

𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠)
4.2.2 Mass Flow rate
 =  Av
m  = mass flowrate (kg / s)
m
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠)
𝜌 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
1|Page DJJ20073
Example 4.1
If the diameter d = 15 cm and the mean velocity, v = 3 m/s, calculate the actual discharge in
the pipe.
Solution
Example 4.2
Oil flows through a pipe at a velocity of 1.6 m/s. The diameter of the pipe is 8 cm. Calculate
discharge and mass flow rate of oil. Take into consideration soil = 0.85.
Solution
Example 4.3
The weight of an empty bucket is 2.0 kg. After 7 seconds of collecting water the weight of
the bucket is 8.0 kg. Calculate the mass flow rate of the fluid.
Solution
2|Page DJJ20073
4.3 Continuity Equation
For continuity of flow in any system of fluid flow, the total amount of fluid entering the
system must equal the amount leaving the system. This occurs in the case of uniform flow
and steady flow.
P R
QP QR
SYSTEM
P R
QP = discharge through cross-section P-P

AP = cross-sectional area through P-P
vp = fluid mean velocity through P-P
QR = discharge through cross-section R-R
AR = cross-sectional area through R-R
vR = fluid mean velocity through R-R
QP =QR
Discharge at section P = Discharge at section R
QP = Q R
A P vP = A R vR
3|Page DJJ20073
4.3.1 Application Continuity Equation
4|Page DJJ20073
Example 4.4
If the area A1 = 10  10-3 m2 and A2 = 3  10-3 m2 and the upstream mean velocity, v1=2.1 m/s,
calculate the downstream mean velocity.
Solution
Example 4.5
A pipe is split into 2 pipes which are BC and BD as shown in the Figure below. The
following information is given:
Diameter pipe AB at A = 0.45 m

Diameter pipe AB at B = 0.3 m
Diameter pipe BC = 0.2 m
Diameter pipe BD = 0.15 m
Calculate:
a) discharge at section A if vA = 2 m/s

b) velocity at section B and section D if velocity at section C = 4 m/s
A B
5|Page DJJ20073
6|Page DJJ20073
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Water flows through a pipe AB of diameter d1 = 50 mm, which is in series with a pipe BC of
diameter d2 = 75 mm in which the mean velocity v2 = 2 m/s. At C the pipe forks and one
branch CD is of diameter d3 such that the mean velocity v3 is 1.5 m/s. The other branch CE is
of diameter d4 = 30 mm and conditions are such that the discharge Q2 from BC divides so that
Q4 = ½ Q3. Calculate the values of Q1,v1,Q2,Q3,D3,Q4 and v4..
(Answer: Q1 = 8.836 × 10-3 m3/s, v1 = 4.50 m/s, Q3 = 5.891 × 10-3 m3/s, Q4 = 2.945 × 10-3
m3/s
d3 = 71 mm, v4 = 4.17 m/s)
7|Page DJJ20073
Exercise
1. Water flows through a pipe 18 cm in diameter at velocity of 45 m/s. Define the actual
discharge in the pipe.( Q=1.145 m3/s)
2. Oil flows through a pipe 8 cm in diameter at velocity of 1.6 m/s. Take into
consideration soil = 0.85. Calculate:
a) Actual discharge in the pipe ( Q = 8.042 10-3 m3/s)
 = 6.8357 kg/s )
b) Mass flow rate ( m
3. A pipe 200 mm in diameter discharge 600 l/s of water. Calculate:
a) Velocity in the pipe ( V = 19.1 m/s)
 = 600 kg/s )
b) Mass flow rate ( m
4. A pipe 5 cm in diameter is split into two pipes which are BC and BD. Diameter pipe
BC is 2.5 cm in which the velocity is 1.3 m/s. Another pipe BD is 1.5 cm diameter
with velocity 0.6 m/s. Calculate the velocity in pipe AB. ( V = 0.38 m/s)
5. A pipe AB is split into two pipes which are BC and BD. AB pipe is 90 mm in
diameter and the velocity is 2.1 m/s. Calculate the discharge in pipe BC if the
discharge of BC is 2.5 times larger than the discharge of BD.
( QBD = 3.82 10-3 m3/s) ( QBC = 9.54 10-3 m3/s).
6. According to the figure below, given d1 = 0.7 m, d2 = 0.45 m, d3= 0.25m d4 = 0.15 m,
V1 = 2 m/s and V4 = 7 m/s. Calculate;
a) Discharge at section 2 ( Q1=0.77 m3/s)
b) Velocity at section 2( V2 = 4.84 m/s)
c) Velocity at section 3( V3 = 13.18 m/s)
7. A pipe split into BC and BD. Pipe BC is 60 mm in diameter. The discharge in pipe
AB is 8 liter/s. The diameter of pipe A is 75 mm and the diameter of pipe B is 50 mm.
The velocity in pipe BD is 1.5 m/s and the discharge in pipe BC is half than discharge
in pipe BD. Calculate
a) Discharge in pipe A, B, BC and BD(QA =QB = 8 10-3 m3/s)
( QBC = 2.67 10-3 m3/s) ( QBD = 5.34 10-3 m3/s)
b) Velocity at pipe A, B, and BC( VA = 1.81m/s) ( VB = 4.08m/s) ( VBC =
0.94m/s)
c) Diameter of BD.(dBD = 0.067 m @67 mm)
8|Page DJJ20073
4.4 Energy of a flowing fluid

A liquid may possess three forms of energy:
Potential energy
Potential head = z
Pressure energy
P P
Pressure head. = =
 g
Kinetic energy
v2
Velocity head. =
2g
The total energy of the liquid is the sum of these three forms of energy
Total head = potential head + pressure head + velocity head

𝒑 𝒗𝟐
Total energy per unit weight = 𝒛 + +
𝝎 𝟐𝒈
4.4.1 Bernoulli’s Theorem Concept
States that the total energy of each particle of a body of liquid is the same provided
that no energy enters or leaves the system at any point. The division of this energy
between potential, pressure and kinetic energy may vary but the total remains
constant.
2
v p
z + +
2g 
Total energy at section 1=Total energy at section 2
𝑧1 + 2 + 𝑝 = 𝑧2 + 2 + 𝑝
2𝑔 𝜔1 2𝑔 𝜔2
𝑣1 𝑣2
9|Page DJJ20073
4.4.2 The limits of Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s Eqution is the most important and useful equation in fluid mechanics. It
may be written,
2 2
v p v p
z1 + 1 + 1 = z 2 + 2 + 2
2g  2g 
Bernoulli’s Equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they are :
▪ the flow is steady
▪ the density is constant (which also means the fluid is compressible)
▪ friction losses are negligible
▪ the equation relates the state at two points along a single streamline (not
conditions on two different streamlines).
4.4.3 Application of Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to the following situations.
3.8.1 Horizontal Pipe

3.8.2 Slant pipe / Inclined Pipe
3.8.3 Venture Horizontal Meter
3.8.4 Venture Tilt Meter
3.8.5 Orifice Meter
3.8.6 Pitot Tube
a) Horizontal Pipe
Bernoulli' s Equation for one point,

z p v2
mm =z + +
 2g
10 | P a g e DJJ20073
Example 4.6:
36m
m
Water flows through a pipe 36 m from the sea level as shown in figure 3.5. Pressure in
the pipe is 410 kN/m2 and the velocity is 4.8 m/s. Calculate total energy of every
weight of unit water above the sea level
Solution:
b) Slant Pipe / Inclined Pipe
N
ZM L
ZN
2 2
v p v p
zM + M + M = z N + N + N
2g  2g 
11 | P a g e DJJ20073
Example 4.7:
A bent pipe labeled PQ measures 7 m and 4 m respectively above the datum line. The
diameter P and Q are both 25 cm and 6 cm. The water pressure is 5 kg/cm2. If the
velocity at P is 1.8 m/s, determine the pressure at Q in kg/cm2.
Solution:
12 | P a g e DJJ20073
Exercises
1) A pipe 15 m long is connected to a house which is 5m respectively above sea level.

The diameter of the pipe is 30 cm and the velocity is 2 m/s. Determine total energy of
every weight of unit water if the pressure is 5000 pascal. (5.714 J/N)
2) A pipe 25 cm in diameter measures 7m and 4m respectively above the datum line. If
the discharge in the pipe is 80 liter/s, calculate:
a) Pressure difference in the pipe. (-29.43 kN/m2)
b) Mass flow rate (80.03 kg/s)
3) A pipe labelled ST which is 5m above the datum line at S. The diameter of section S
and T are both 7 cm and 15 cm. The water pressure is 15 N/m2 at S and 13 N/m2 at T.
If the velocity at S is 18 m/s, determine:
a) Mass flow rate at S (69.3 kg/s)
b) Outlet velocity (3.91 m/s)
c) The level of section T above the datum line. (20.73 m)
4) Water is discharged in an inclined pipe. The smaller pipe is measured lower than the
bigger pipe. Pipe J is 12 cm in diameter and pipe K is 25 cm in diameter. The pressure
of J is 2500 kN/m2 and the pressure of K is 1250 kN/m2. If the discharge of J is 75 l/s,
define;
a) Velocity of K (1.527 m/s)
b) Mass flowrate of J (75kg/s)
c) The difference level of pipe (129 m)
5) Water is passed through a pipe installed in an inclined narrow as in the figure .
Diameter pipe in cross-section 1 is 15 cm and diameter on cross section 2 is 8 cm.
Water pressure is estimated to be 660 kN/m2 on the strip cross section 1 and 15 kN/m2
on the cross section 2. If the inlet velocity is 10 m/s, calculate:
a) Mass flow rate in cross-section 1 (177 kg/s)
b) The outlet velocity (35.21 m/s)
c) The height of outlet pipe (12.658 m)
2
1
Z2
5m
Datum line
13 | P a g e DJJ20073
c) Horizontal Venturi Meter

Venturi meter : It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a non-viscous,
ncompressible fluid in non-rotational and steady-stream lined flow. Although venture
meters can be applied to the measurement of gas, they are most commonly used for
liquids. The following treatment is limited to incompressible fluids.
Converging
Cone Throat
Entry
Diverging Section
Direction of
flow
Section 2
Leads
gauge
(2v2a2)
filled with
Section 1 liquid in
(1,v1,A1) x pipeline
Spec.weight.
of gauge
liquid= g
Putting ;
p1 = pressure of section 1
2 gH
Qtheory = A1
v1 = velocity of section 1 m2 − 1
A1 = area of section 1 2 gH
Qactual = Cd  Qtheory = Cd A1
p2 = pressure of section 2 m2 − 1
Where Cd = coefficient of
v1 = velocity of section 1 discharge.
A1 = area of section 1
d 2
A1 = OR r 2
ω1 = liquid in pipeline 4
m = area ratio
ωg = liquid in the gauge A d1
2
m= 1 OR m= 2
2
A2 d2
g = gravity (9.81 m/s )
P1 - P2
H= OR
z = height above datum 
  mercury 
H = x  − 1
  substsnce 
14 | P a g e DJJ20073
Example 4.8
A venture tube tapers from 300 mm in diameter at the entrance to 100 mm in diameter at the
throat; the discharge coefficient is 0.98. A differential mercury U-tube gauge is connected
between pressure tapping at the entrance at throat. If the meter is used to measure the flow of
water and the water fills the leads to the U-tube and is in contact with the mercury, calculate
the discharge when the difference of level in the U-tube is 55 mm.
Solution
15 | P a g e DJJ20073
d) Inclined Venturi Meter
Where Cd = coefficient of discharge Cd  A1   p1 − p2  

Qactual = 2 g   + ( z1 − z 2 )
(m 2
)
−1     
Example 4.9
A vertical venturi meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.82 and has an entrance
of 125 mm diameter and throat of 50 mm diameter. There are pressure gauges at the entrance
and at the throat, which is 300 mm above the entrance. If the coefficient for the meter is 0.97
and pressure difference is 27.5 kN/m2, calculate the actual discharge in m3/s.
Solution
z1 z2
16 | P a g e DJJ20073
Exercises
1. A venture tube tapers from 450 mm in diameter at the entrance to 250 mm in diameter
at the throat. A differential mercury U-tube gauge is connected between pressure
tapping at the entrance at throat. The meter is used to measure the flow of water and
the water fills the leads to the leads to the U-tube and is in contact with the mercury. If
the difference of the level in the U-tube is 75 mm and the discharge coefficient is
0.93. calculate:
a. Discharge
b. Velocity at the entrance of venture meter.
2. A horizontal venture meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.9 in a 7 mm
diameter pipe line. If the difference of pressure between the full bore and the throat
tapping is 34.5 kN/m2 and the area ratio, m is 4, calculate the rate of flow assuming
the coefficient of discharge is 0.97.
3. A venture tube tapers from 150 mm in diameter at the entrance to 100 mm in diameter
at the throat. Calculate the discharge if the specific gravity of oil used is 0.9 when the
difference of the level in the U-tube is 0.2 m and the discharge coefficient is 0.85.
4. A horizontal meter venture tapers from 7.5 cm in diameter at the entrance to 2.5cm in
diameter at the throat. If the pressure head of meter venture is 41.2 cm and the
discharge coefficient is 0.97, calculate the discharge.
5. A meter venture measured 65 mm in diameter at the entrance and 26 mm in diameter
at the throat. The meter venture is used to measure the discharge of fluid of 898
kg/m2. If the specific gravity of mercury used is 13.6 and the difference of the level in
the U-tube is 70mm, calculate the discharge in m3/hour. Assume the discharge
coefficient is 0.97.
6. A venture meter measures the flow of water in a 75 mm diameter pipe. The different
between the throat and the entrance of meter is measured by the U-tube containing
mercury which is being in contact with water. What should be the diameter of the
throat in order that the difference in the level of mercury is 250mm when the quantify
of water flowing in the pipe is 620 dm3/min. Assume coefficient discharge is 0.97.
7. A horizontal meter venture has an entrance of 250mm in diameter and throat of 150
mm in diameter. Calculate the discharge coefficient when the difference level in the
U-tube is 55mm and the discharge is 38 liter/s.
17 | P a g e DJJ20073
8. A meter venture is used to measure the discharge of oil in which the relative density is
0.82. The entrance is 100mm in diameter and the throat is 70 mm in diameter. The
difference level in the U-tube is 45 mm mercury. Assume the discharge coefficient is
0.96, define:
a. Discharge in venture meter.
b. Pressure difference between the entrance and the throat.
9. A horizontal meter venture has an entrance of 150 mm in diameter and throat of
50mm in diameter. It is used to measure the discharge of 8 liter/s. If the specific
gravity of oil used is 0.82 and discharge coefficient is 0.92, calculate the difference
level in the U-tube.
10. An inclined meter venture has an entrance of 125 mm in diameter and throat of 50mm
in diameter. It is used to measure the discharge of oil in which the relative density
0.85. The entrance is 300 mm lower than the throat. Calculate the discharge if the
pressure difference between the entrance and the throat is 172.5 kN/m2 and discharge
coefficient is 0.97.
11. An inclined meter venture has an entrance of 75 m in diameter and throat of 45 cm in
diameter. It is used to measure the flow rate of oil of 2450 dm3/S. The entrance is 45
cm higher than the throat. Given the specific gravity of oil used is 0.88 and the
difference level in the U-tube is 98mm mercury. Assuming the relative density of
mercury is 13.6, define the discharge coefficient of meter venture.
12. An inclined venture meter measures the flow of water in a 70 cm diameter pipe. The
difference between the throat and the entrance is measured by the U-tube containing
mercury which is being in contact with oil in which the relative density is 0.88. The
coefficient discharge is 0.82 and the throat is 400 mm lower than the entrance. If the
pressure difference between the entrance and the throat is 140 kN/m2 and the quantify
of water flowing in the pipe is 2500 dm3/s, define :
a. The diameter of the throat
b. Velocity at the throat
18 | P a g e DJJ20073
e) Orifice Meter
The Venture Meter described earlier is a reliable flow measuring device. Furthermore, it
causes little pressure loss. For these reasons it is widely used, particularly for large-volume
liquid and gas flows. However this meter is relatively complex to construct and hence
expensive especially for small pipelines. The cost of the Venturi Meter seems prohibitive, so
simpler device such as Orifice Meter is used.
Section 1, given :
v1 = velocity of section 1
Section 2, given :
v2 = velocity of section 2
To determine the actual discharge, Qactual ;
Qactual = C d  A1  v1
So,
2 gH
Qactual = C d  A1
( )
m 2 −1
Where Cd = coefficient of discharge.
19 | P a g e DJJ20073
Example 4.10
A meter orifice has a 100 mm diameter rectangular hole in the pipe. Diameter of the pipe is
250 mm. Coefficient of discharge, Cd = 0.65 and specific gravity of oil in the pipe is 0.9. The
pressure difference that is measured by the manometer is 750 mm. Calculate the flow rate of
the oil through the pipe.
20 | P a g e DJJ20073
f) Pitot Tube
▪ The Pitot Tube is a device

used to measure the local
velocity along a
streamline
▪ The pitot tube has two
tubes: one is a static tube
(b), and another is an
impact tube(a).
▪ Although theoretically v= (2gh) , pitot tubes may require
calibration. The actual velocity is then given by v=C (2gh) where C

is the coefficient of the instrument.
Example 4.11
A Pitot Tube is used to measure air velocity in a pipe attached to a mercury manometer. Head
difference of that manometer is 6 mm water. The weight density of air is 1.25 kg/m3.
Calculate the air velocity if coefficient of the pitot tube, C = 0.94.
Solution:
𝑣 = 𝐶√2𝑔ℎ(𝑔)(ℎ)
21 | P a g e DJJ20073
FLUID MECHANICS (DJJ20073) CHAPTER 5:ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPELINES
CHAPTER 5: ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPELINES
5.1 ROUND PIPE SYSTEM
A pipe is defined as a closed conduit of circular section through which the fluid
flows, filling the complete cross-section. The fluid in the pipe has no free surface. It will be
at a pressure which may vary along the pipe. Losses of energy in a pipeline cannot be
ignored. When the shock losses and friction loss have been determined, they are inserted
in Bernoulli’s equation in the usual way.
Velocity profile in circular pipe system (refer Figure 4.1)
rough pipe
wall
smooth pipe wall
Figure 4.1
Losses of energy in pipe line are due to :
a) shock loss at sudden enlargement

b) shock loss at sudden contraction
c) frictional resistance to flow
d) loss at entry
e) loss at rounded exit
1|Page DJJ20073
5.2 TYPES OF LOSSES
a) Shock Loss At Sudden Enlargement
Figure 4.2
b) Shock Loss at Sudden Contraction
Figure 4.3
2|Page DJJ20073
C) Friction Loss
Figure 4.4
Loss head due to friction,
d) Shock Loss at Entrance
e) Shock Loss at Exit
3|Page DJJ20073
Example 5.1
A pipe carrying 156 liter/s of water increases suddenly from 15 cm to 25 cm diameter.
Find:
a. The head loss due to the sudden enlargement.

b. The difference in pressure in two pipe.
Solution :
4|Page DJJ20073
Example 5.2
A pipe carrying 75 liter/s of water increases suddenly from 350mm to 250mm diameter.
Assume Cc=0.65. Find:
a. The head loss due to the sudden contraction.
b. The difference in pressure in two pipe
Solution :
5|Page DJJ20073
Example 5.3
Water is discharge from a reservoir into the atmosphere through a pipe 65 m long. There is
a sharp entrance to the pipe and the diameter is 450 mm. The discharge is 75 liter/s. Take
f=0.004 for the pipe. Calculate the surface level difference in the reservoir and the pipe.
Solution :
6|Page DJJ20073
Example 5.4
Water is discharge from a reservoir into the atmosphere through a pipe 43 m long. There is
a sharp entrance to the pipe and the diameter is 150 mm for the first 21m. The pipe then
enlarge suddenly to 250mm in diameter for the reminder of its length. Take f=0.004 for
small pipe and f=0.005 for bigger pipe. The discharge is 32 liter/s. Calculate :
a. The inlet velocity

b. The surface level difference in the reservoir and the pipe.
Solution :
7|Page DJJ20073
Example 5.5
Two reservoirs are connected by a pipeline 42m long which is 75mm in diameter for the
first 25m. The pipe then contracts suddenly to 60mm for the reminder of its length. The
entrance and the exit are sharp. Assume friction of coefficient for both pipes is 0.0038 for
small pipe and 0.0048 for bigger pipe. If the inlet velocity is 2.21 m/s and coefficient of
contraction is 0.67, calculate the surface level between the reservoirs.
Solution:
8|Page DJJ20073
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. A pipe carrying 18 liter/s of water increases suddenly from 10 cm to 15 cm diameter. Find:

a. The head loss due to the sudden enlargement. (answer: 0.083 m)
b. The difference in pressure in two pipe. (answer: -1294.94 N/m2)
2. A pipe carrying 0.065 m3/s/s of water increases suddenly from 150mm to 75mm diameter.
Assume Cc=0.65. Find:
a. The head loss due to the sudden contraction. (answer: 3.199m)
b. The difference in pressure in two pipe. (answer: 132.89𝘅103 N/m2)
3. A pipe carrying water enlarge suddenly double than the first pipe. If the inlet velocity is 5.5
m/s, find:
a. The head loss due to the sudden enlargement. (answer: 0.867m)
b. The difference in pressure in two pipe (P1-P2=-5670N/m2)
4. A pipe carrying 5 liter/s of water increases suddenly from 325mm to 225mm diameter. The
outlet is 5m higher than the inlet. Assume Cc=0.65. Find:
a. The head loss due to the sudden contraction. (answer: 0.139m)
b. The difference in pressure in two pipe (answer: 54.15 kN/m2)
5. Water is discharge from a reservoir into the atmosphere through a pipe 80 m long. There is
a sharp entrance to the pipe and the diameter is 250 mm for the first 50m. The outlet is
35m below the surface level in the reservoir. The pipe then enlarge suddenly to 450mm in
diameter for the reminder of its length. Take f=0.004 for both pipes. Calculate the
discharge.
(answer: 0.615 m3/s)
6. Water is discharge from a reservoir into the atmosphere through a pipe 40 m long. There is
a sharp entrance to the pipe and the diameter is 50 mm for the first 17m. The pipe then
enlarge suddenly to 75mm in diameter for the reminder of its length. Take f=0.003 for
small pipe and f=0.004 for bigger pipe. The discharge is 2.8 liter/s. Calculate :
a. The inlet velocity (answer: 1.43 m/s)
b. The surface level difference in the reservoir and the pipe. (answer: 6.776 m)
9|Page DJJ20073
7. Water is discharge from a reservoir into the atmosphere through a pipe 450 m long in
which the diameter is 100mm.There is a sharp entrance to the pipe and the outlet is 12m
below the surface level in the reservoir. Take f=0.01 in formula Darcy. Calculate the
discharge. (answer:8.95 X 10-3 m3/s)
8. Two reservoirs are connected by a pipeline 39m long which is 75mm in diameter for the
first 15m. The pipe then contracts suddenly to 50mm for the reminder of its length. The
entrance and the exit are sharp. Assume friction of coefficient for both pipes is 0.0048 for
small pipe and 0.0058 for bigger pipe. If the inlet velocity is 1.45 m/s, calculate the surface
level between the reservoirs. (answer: 6.194m)
9. Two reservoirs have a difference in level of 9 m and are connected by a pipeline, which is
38mm in diameter for the first 13m and 23 mm for the remaining 6m. Take f=0.01 for both
pipes and Cc=0.66. Calculate the discharge. (answer: 1.497 X 10-3 m3/s)
10. Two reservoirs are connected by a pipeline, which is 40mm in diameter for the first 12m
and 25 mm for the remaining m. Take f=0.01 for both pipes and Cc=0.66. if the outlet
velocity is 8.15 m/s. Calculate the difference level in the reservoirs (answer: 14.911m)
11. Water is discharge from a reservoir into the atmosphere through a pipe 65 m long which is
56 liter/s in flow rate. There is a sharp entrance to the pipe and the diameter is 300 mm
for the first 30m. The pipe then enlarge suddenly to 450mm in diameter for the reminder
of its length. Take f=0.003 for both pipes.
a. State all of head losses in the pipe system.
b. Calculate the surface level difference in the reservoir. (answer: 0.0765m)
12. Two reservoirs are connected by a pipeline 45m long which is 300mm in diameter for the
first 12m, 225 mm for 15m long and 200mm for the remaining of its length. Given
f1=0.0075, f2=0.0078 and f3=0.0072 and Cc=0.66. If the difference level in the reservoirs are
18m, define the discharge. (answer: 8.69 X 10-2 m3/s)
10 | P a g e DJJ20073

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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION OF FLUID

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF FLUID

1.1 UNDERSTAND FLUID

1.1.1 DEFINITION OF FLUID

Fluid is a substance which can flow.

1.1.2 Fluid Term

The term fluid includes both liquid and gases.

SUZILAWATI ALIAS/ DJJ20073 1

1.1.3 Distinguish between liquid, gas and solid

Gas Liquid Solid

Arrangement Random far apart Random close Definite close

Motion of fast moderate slow

SUZILAWATI ALIAS/ DJJ20073 2

1.2 DEFINITION OF PRESSURE

1.2.1 The type of pressure

No. Type of pressure Definition

4. Vacuum,Pv In a perfect vacuum which is completely empty

1.2.2 Diagram of the relationship between the type of pressure

SUZILAWATI ALIAS/ DJJ20073 3

1.2.3 Measurement of pressure

SUZILAWATI ALIAS/ DJJ20073 4

1.3 Fluid Pressure and Depth

Weight of the liquid contained in the cylinder:

𝑊 = 𝜔ℎ𝐴 with,  = Specific weight of the liquid

The pressure at the bottom of the cylinder,

SUZILAWATI ALIAS/ DJJ20073 5

Determine the pressure in units of N/m2 in the following circumstances:

i. Depth of 600 cm below the surface of the water

SUZILAWATI ALIAS/ DJJ20073 6

CHAPTER 2 : PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUID

NO PROPERTIES SYMBOL DEFINITION EQUATION UNITS EXAMPLES

water = 1000 kg/m3

Inverse of mass density

The ability of the fluid in

ii. Relative density/specific gravity

ii. specific volume of fluid,

iii. Density of fluid

Given oil specific gravity is 0.74. Find:

ii. Specific weight of oil, w

iii. Specific volume of oil, v

ii. Specific weight

iii. Relative density

CHAPTER 3: FLUID STATICS

3.1.1 DEFINITION OF PASCAL’S LAW

Px P1 Pascal's principle states

3.1.2 HYDRAULIC JACK

Hydraulic Jack: The piston are at the same level

Hydraulic Jack: Small piston below the larger piston

Hydraulic Jack : Large piston below the smaller piston

1. Define Pascal's Law.

a. What is the weight, W is supposed to apply if the piston same level.

3.2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Let, h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left-hand limb

p B = Pressure, p A at A + Pressure due to depth, h1 of fluid P

p C = Pressure p D at D + Pressure due to depth h2 of liquid Q

b) Differential Manometer (Manometer Beza)

* used for measuring the

c) Inverted Differential Manometer (Manometer Terbalik)

Fluid Q * used for measuring the

 fluid A = 700 kg/m3

PIEZOMETER (Pressure Tube)

A Piezometer is used for

Solution to Example 3.11