Atoms, Molecules & Ions

CHEM 111

Jeannie Limayo, RMT MPH DTA

College of Medical Technology

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 ATOMS
• Smallest unit of an element
• Fundamental unit of structures of matter
• Early Atomic speculations:
- Democritus / Lecretius
- Empedocles
- Aristotle
- John Dalton
Models of the Atom Through Time:
500 BC: Democritus
Democritus inferred that all matter is
composed of small, indestructible particles
he named atomos. He taught that there was
an infinite number of them, and that atoms
differed in their size, shape, and weight. He
also thought that different substances were
made up of different kinds of atoms.
400 BC: Aristotle
Aristotle didn’t believe in
atoms. He thought all
matter was composed of
a combination of four
elements- air, fire, water
and earth.
His model was, of course,
accepted for the next
2000 years.
1803: John Dalton
After experimenting with
gases, especially
hydrogen, methane and
oxygen, Dalton
rediscovered the particle
theory of matter.
 The “Billiard Ball” Model
• proposed by John Dalton in 1804

• this theory proposed that matter was

composed of small, spherical particles

• but evidence was later gathered that matter

was composed of even smaller bits
• in the 1900s evidence was discovered regarding
charges:
– atoms have positive and negative parts
– charges interact:

• as a result, revisions to Dalton’s model had to be

made
 Like Democritus, Dalton thought an atom was a tiny,
irreducible sphere that could not be destroyed.
1890: JJ Thomson
Excited by the discovery of X-rays a couple
of years earlier, Thomson played around
with radioactive waves and discovered that
atoms have electrical charges. Not only
that, he discovered that those charges come
from small particles which make up part of
the atom. He called the particles electrons.
 “Chocolate Chip Cookie” Model
• using available data on the atom, J.J.
Thompson came up with the idea of having
charges embedded with Dalton’s Billiard
Balls
negative
positive “chocolate”
(evenly distributed)
“dough”
part

note: this model kept Dalton’s key ideas intact

Thomson thought that atoms
consisted of positively-
charged main bodies, and
attached to these were the
negatively-charged electrons +
(plum pudding model). He ---
was wrong about the details,
but his discovery that atoms + ---
+
can be broken down into even --- +
smaller parts earned him
science immortality.
 J. J. Thomson (1898—1903)
• Postulated the existence of electrons using cathode-
ray tubes.
• Determined the charge-to-mass ratio of an electron.
• The atom must also contain positive particles that
balance exactly the negative charge carried by
particles that we now call electrons.

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2.2
 Robert Millikan (1909)
• Performed experiments involving charged oil drops.
• Determined the magnitude of the charge on a single
electron.
• Calculated the mass of the electron.

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 Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C

Thomson’s charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g
2.2
• The nucleus is:
 Small compared with the overall size of the atom.
 Extremely dense; accounts for almost all of the
atom’s mass.

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 Ernest Rutherford (1911)
• Explained the nuclear atom.
• Atom has a dense center of positive charge called
the nucleus.
• Electrons travel around the nucleus at a relatively
large distance.

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1909: Earnest Rutherford:
A student of Thompson,
Rutherford designed a very
famous experiment that
proved that the atom is
mostly empty space: he
bombarded a very thin piece
of gold leaf with alpha
particles. Although some
alpha particles were
reflected, most passed
through, proving that a
dense nucleus was at the
center of the atom, but not
much else.
 Cathode-Ray Tube

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 (1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g)
2.2
(Uranium compound)
2.2
 Rutherford’s Model of
the Atom

atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m

nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

2.2
1912: Niels Bohr
Bohr improved Rutherford’s
model by noticing that energy
levels in atoms went up and
down by specific, “pre-set”
amounts. He suggested that
electrons move around the
nucleus of an atom like planets
around the sun, and that they
move from orbit to orbit as
they gain and lose energy.
 Bohr Model
• Bohr also suggested that the electrons can only
revolve in certain orbits, or at certain energy levels
(ie, the energy levels are quantized)

no energy level in between steps

Structure of a Bohr Atom:
Electron- negative charge (-)

Neutron-no charge

Proton- positive charge (+)

Chadwick’s Experiment (1932)
H atoms - 1 p; He atoms - 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4

 + 9Be 1n + 12C + energy

neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)
n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g
2.2
 ATOMIC STRUCTURES
• Thompson Model – A spherical containing
electrons ( positively charged made neutral
by the electrons). PLUM PUDDING
MODEL
• Rutherford’s Model- (alpha sctattering
experiment) the positive charges are
concentrated in the nucleus and the region
outside is occupied by negative charge of -e
 ATOMIC STRUCTURES
• Bohr Model – Protons are in the nucleus and the –
e are in the orbital motion around the nucleus.
• Rutherford - Bohr Model- Atoms are
in elliptical orbits of increasing number
• Heinsenberg Uncertainty Model- simultaneous
determination of the exact position & exact
momentum of electrons are impossible
• Electron Model – Nucleus is a single cluster of
particles at the center of the atom while the –e are
everywhere in a rotating motion
 Quantum Mechanical Model
• the current understanding of the atom is based on
Quantum Mechanics

• this model sees the electrons not as individual

particles, but as behaving like a cloud - the
electron can be “anywhere” in a certain energy
level
 Atomic Orbitals
• S orbital
• P orbital
• D orbital
• F orbital
 Orbital Model/Electron
Cloud Model
• The energy levels of electrons are
labeled by principal quantum numbers
(n)
• Each energy sublevel corresponds to
an orbital of a different shape, which
describes where the electron is likely to
be found.
Shapes and Orientations
of Orbitals
 1s Orbital

• Sphere around the nucleus

The one tells you that the

electron is in the orbital
closest to the nucleus
• S tells you about the shape
 2s Orbital

• Similar to 1s except the electron is most

likely in the region farther from the nucleus
 p Orbitals

• At the first energy level

there is only the 1s
orbital, after the second
energy level there are
2p orbitals
• Look like dumbbells
• In the three directions
 Summary: p orbitals and d orbitals
p orbitals look like
a dumbell with 3
orientations: px, py,
pz (“p sub z”).
Four of the d orbitals resemble two dumbells in a
clover shape. The last d orbital resembles a p
orbital with a donut wrapped around the middle.
Atomic Orbitals
 Four Energy Sub-Levels
Energy Level Sub-level Type of sub # of
Orbitals
s Sphere 2 1

p Dumbbell 6 3

d 4-Lobed 10 5

f 6-8 Lobed 14 7
MAX NUMBER OF ELECTRONS
IN AN ENERGY LEVEL
ENERGY LEVEL MAX # OF ELECTRONS

1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32
5 50
 Electron
Configuration
A detailed way of showing the
order in which electrons fill in
around the nucleus
Electron Configuration
# of e- in
Symbols sub level

1s 2
Energy Level Sub Level
(s, p, d, f )
 We must follow 3 rules…
• Aufbau priciple
• Electrons occupy energy levels with lowest
energy first.
 Pauli exclusion principle

• If 2 electrons occupy the same energy level

they must have opposite spins.
 Hund’s rule…

• Electrons that occupy orbitals of the same

energy will have the maximum number of
electrons with the same spin.

• 2p
 To start we will use orbital filling
diagrams to help us with electron
configurations….
• Example
Boron- has 5 electrons
1920-present: Particle-Wave models
Since Bohr, most scientists have tried to describe
atoms using mathematical models instead of
physical ones. Generally, in these modern models,
they keep the nucleus where Rutherford and Bohr
left it, and try to describe the location and
movement of electrons, which can best be
described as a “cloud” which surrounds the
nucleus. Even more recent theories suggest that
matter, at its most basic level, isn’t even made of
particles at all, but consists of really tiny fields of
vibrating energy.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• A compound contains atoms of two or more
different elements and individual atoms of
an element may all have the same the same
mass
• Atoms are not subdivided in chemical
reactions
 Modern Atomic Theory
• Atoms may be disintegrated. In Nuclear reactions,
atoms are being transferred into atoms of single
elements in a process known as nuclear
transmutation
• Not all atoms of any given elements are alike.
• Not all atoms of a given element pose identical
properties except in mass
• Atoms of different elements have different
properties
Subatomic Particles (Table 2.1)

Mass Charge Charge

Particle
(g) (Coulombs) (units)
- -28 -19
Electron (e ) 9.1 x 10 -1.6 x 10 -1

Proton (p+) 1.67 x 10-24 +1.6 x 10-19 +1

Neutron (n) 1.67 x 10-24 0 0

mass p = mass n = 1840 x mass e-

2.2
 Subatomic particles
• Protons – Discovered by Eugene Goldstein
- Introduced by Henry Moseley
- carries the positive charge
(+1.602 x 10-19 coulombs)
• Electrons – Discovered by J. J. Thompson
- (-1.602 x 10-19 coulombs)
• Neutrons – Discovered by James Chadwick
- Non charged particles
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei
Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U

2.3
2.3
 Do You Understand Isotopes?

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 146 C?

6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 116 C?

6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

2.3
 Do You Understand Ions?

27 3 +
How many protons and electrons are in 13 Al ?

13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons

How many protons and electrons are in 78

34 Se 2- ?

34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons

2.5
 Three Important Laws
• Law of conservation of mass (Lavoisier):
 Mass is neither created nor destroyed.

• Law of definite proportion (Proust):

 A given compound always contains exactly the
same proportion of elements by mass.

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2

2.1
16 X + 8Y 8 X2Y

2.1
 Three Important Laws
(continued)
• Law of multiple proportions (Dalton):
 When two elements form a series of compounds,
the ratios of the masses of the second element that
combine with 1 gram of the first element can
always be reduced to small whole numbers.

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 2.4

Noble Gas
Halogen
Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

2.5
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
2.5
A monatomic ion contains only one atom
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

2.5
2.5
2.6
A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance

An empirical formula shows the simplest

whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance

molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O

O3 O
N2H4 NH2
2.6
ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations
and an anions
• the formula is always the same as the empirical formula
• the sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each
formula unit must equal zero
The ionic compound NaCl

2.6
Formula of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
2.6
 Some Polyatomic Ions (Table 2.3)

NH4+ ammonium SO42- sulfate

CO32- carbonate SO32- sulfite
- -
HCO3 bicarbonate NO3 nitrate
ClO3- chlorate NO2- nitrite
Cr2O72- dichromate SCN- thiocyanate
2- -
CrO4 chromate OH hydroxide

2.7
 Chemical Nomenclature
• Ionic Compounds
– often a metal + nonmetal
– anion (nonmetal), add “ide” to element name

BaCl2 barium chloride

K2O potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide

KNO3 potassium nitrate

2.7
 • Transition metal ionic compounds
– indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals

FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 iron(II) chloride

FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride

Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(III) sulfide

2.7
• Molecular compounds
– nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
– common names
• H2O, NH3, CH4, C60
– element further left in periodic table is 1st
– element closest to bottom of group is 1st
– if more than one compound can be formed
from the same elements, use prefixes to
indicate number of each kind of atom
– last element ends in ide

2.7
 Molecular Compounds

HI hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide TOXIC!

N2O dinitrogen monoxide Laughing Gas

2.7
An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
HCl
•Pure substance, hydrogen chloride
•Dissolved in water (H+ Cl-), hydrochloric acid

An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,

oxygen, and another element.

HNO3 nitric acid

H2CO3 carbonic acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
2.7
2.7
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

NaOH sodium hydroxide

KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide

2.7