Navodaya Vidyalaya Samithi, Noida

E-Content of Class XI
Subject : Chemistry
Chapter-2 Structure of Atom
Prepared By Dr. R. Sudhir Kumar
PGT Chemistry
JNV Guntur
 HISTORY of Matter

Early Indian Philosophers believed that Matter is made up of five basic

elements called “PANCH BHOOTA”

1. FIRE 2. EARTH 3. SKY

4. AIR 5. WATER
 Structure of Atom Introduction

Democritus 460 B.C was the first to

theorize that matter was made of
small pieces.

Leucippus was the first to use the

term atom (atomon), which meant
"indivisible" in Greek.
Matter consists of tiny particles
 Structure of Atom
The existence of atoms has been proposed since the
time of early Indian and Greek philosophers (400 B.C.)
who were of the view that atoms are the fundamental
building blocks of matter. According to them, atoms
are indivisible.
The word ‘atom’ has been derived from the Greek
word ‘a-tomio’ which means ‘uncut-able’ or
‘non-divisible’.
Dalton’ atomic theory
 Dalton’ atomic theory
The atomic theory of matter was first proposed on a firm
scientific basis by John Dalton, a British school teacher in
1808.
Dalton’s atomic theory was able to explain the
law of conservation of mass, law of constant composition and
law of multiple proportion very successfully.
Failed to explain the results of many experiments, for
example, it was known that substances like glass or ebonite
when rubbed with silk or fur get electrically charged.
 Atoms are made of sub-atomic particles,
i.e., electrons, protons and neutrons

Experiment No.1 Discovery of Electron (1897) J J Thomson

When sufficiently high voltage is applied through an
inert gas (He, Ar) across the electrodes, current starts
flowing through a stream of particles moving in the
Cathode ray discharge tube from the negative electrode
(cathode) to the positive electrode (anode). These were
called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
Cathode ray discharge tube experiment
: Discovery of an Electron
 Properties of Cathode Rays
1. Cathode rays travel in a straight line.
2. Cathode rays produces mechanical effect,
because they rotate a light paddle wheel
placed in their path.
3. Cathode rays produces Heating effect when
they hit a heavy metal.
4. Cathode rays produce flourescent effect
on fluorescent material.
 Properties of Cathode Rays
6. Cathode rays deflect towards a positive terminal in an
electric field.
7. Cathode rays deflect towards the direction determined by
Fleming’ left hand rule.
8. Cathode rays are Negatively charged.
8. Cathode rays can ionize gasses.
9. Cathode rays can produce X rays.
10. Cathode rays do not depend upon the nature of the gas
and material.
 Charge to mass (e/m) ratio determination of an electron
• This experiment measures e/m, the charge to mass ratio of the
electron. This ratio was first measured by J. J. Thomson in 1897. He won a
Nobel prize for his study of electrons.

Procedure :
• (i) In the present experiment a beam of electrons is accelerated through
a known potential, so the velocity of the electrons is known.
• (ii) A pair of Helmholtz coils produces a uniform and measurable magnetic field at
right angles to the electron beam. This magnetic field deflects the electron beam
in a circular path. By measuring the accelerating potential, the current to the
Helmholtz coils, and the radius of the circular path of the electron beam, the ratio
e/m is calculated.
 In 1897, British physicist J.J. Thomson measured the ratio of
electrical charge (e) to the mass of electron (me ) by using
cathode ray tube and applying electrical and magnetic field
perpendicular to each other as well as to the path of electrons.
Arguements :
Thomson argued that the amount of deviation of the particles from
their path in the presence of electrical or magnetic field depends upon:
(i) the magnitude of the negative charge on the particle, greater the
magnitude of the charge on the particle, greater is the interaction
with the electric or magnetic field and thus greater is the
deflection.
(ii) the mass of the particle — lighter the particle, greater
the deflection.
(iii)the strength of the electrical or magnetic field — the deflection of
electrons from its original path increases with the increase in the
voltage across the electrodes, or the strength of the magnetic
field.
Conclusion :
By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount of
deflections observed by the electrons on the electric field
strength or field strength,
Thomson was able to determine the value of e/me as:
11 –1
e/me = 1.758820 × 10 C kg
Where me is the mass of the electron in kg and e is the
magnitude of the charge on the electron in coulomb (C). Since
electrons are negatively charged, the charge on electron is –
e.
 Charge of an electron (1909)
(Millikan oil drop
experiment)
• In 1909, Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher conducted the oil drop
experiment to determine the charge of an electron.
• They suspended tiny charged droplets of oil between two metal
electrodes by balancing downward gravitational force with upward
drag and electric forces. The density of the oil was known, so Millikan
and Fletcher could determine the droplets’ masses from their
observed . Using the known electric field and the values of gravity
and mass, Millikan and Fletcher determined the charge on oil
droplets in mechanical equilibrium.
• They calculated this value to be 1.5924 × 10 −19Coulombs (C), which is
within 1% of the currently accepted value of -1.602176487 × 10−19 C.
 At the time of Millikan and Fletcher’s oil drop experiments, the existence of subatomic particles
was not universally accepted.
George FitzGerald and Walter Kaufmann found similar results.
In 1923, Millikan won the Nobel Prize in physics in part because of this experiment.
Experiment No.2 : Discovery of Proton (1919) Eugene
Goldstein
•Eugene Goldstein noted stream of particles in Cathode
rays in 1886. These particles move in opposite direction to
Cathode rays are called Canal rays because they passed
through holes drilled through a negative plate (Cathode)
•When sufficiently high voltage is applied through an inert
gas (He or Ar) at low pressure across the electrodes, he
observed a new type of rays carrying a positive charge
streaming behind the cathode moving from the positive
electrode (Anode) to the negative electrode (cathode).
These were called Anode rays .
Anode ray discharge tube experiment :
Discovery of an Proton
 Properties of Anode Rays
1. Anode rays travel in a straight line.
2. Anode rays produces mechanical effect, because
they rotate a light paddle wheel placed in their path.
3. Anode rays produces Heating effect when they hit
a heavy metal.
4. Anode rays produce flourescent effect on
fluorescent material.
5. Anode rays are Positively charged.
 Properties of Anode Rays
6. Anode rays deflect towards a Negative terminal in an
electric field.
7. Anode rays deflect towards the direction determined
by Fleming’ left hand rule in magnetic field.
8. Anode rays can ionize gasses.
9. Anode rays do not depend upon the nature of the gas
and material, but mass of positively charged particles
depends upon the nature of gas present in the cathode
ray tube.
Experiment.3 :Discovery of Neutron (1932)
The British Physicist Sir James Chadwick smashed alpha particles
into Beryllium, a rare metallic element, allowed the radiation that was
released to hit another target paraffin wax, This led to the
production of an uncharged, penetrating radiation. the unusually
penetrating radiation consisted of uncharged particles having
(approximately) the same mass as a proton. These particles were later
termed ‘neutrons’.
Characteristics of sub atomic particles
 Atomic models
The structure of an atom, theoretically
consisting of a positively charged nucleus
surrounded and neutralized by negatively
charged electrons revolving in orbits at
varying distances from the nucleus, the
constitution of the nucleus and the
arrangement of the electrons differing with
various chemical elements.
Atomic model no.1 (1904)
 Shortcomings and achievements
An important feature of this model is that the mass of the atom
is assumed.
• It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of
atom failed to explain how a positive charge holds the
negatively charged electrons in an atom.
• Thomson’s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha
particles by thin metal foils.
• Thomson’ model does not accout for the existence of nucleus.
• No experimental evidence.

J.J.Thomson was awarded the Nobel prize in 1906 for discovery

of electron. He also received Knighthood from British Empire.
 Rutherford’ α-scattering experiment(1911)
Objective:
To demonstrate the scattering of alpha particles by gold foil.

Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing how the

electrons are arranged within an atom. In this
experiment, fast moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall
on a thin gold foil.
He selected a gold foil because he wanted as thin a
layer as possible of about 1000 atoms thick, around it a
circular fluorescent ZnS screen is present.
α-particles are doubly-charged helium ions (He+2 )
having a mass of 4µ, the fast-moving α-particles have a
considerable amount of energy.
It was expected that α-particles would be deflected by
the sub-atomic particles in the gold atoms. Since the α-
particles were much heavier than the protons, he did not
expect to see large deflections.
 Observations of Rutherford's scattering experiment
1. Most of the fast moving α-particles passed straight through the gold
foil. 2.Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
3.Surprisingly one out of every 20,000 alpha particles appeared to rebound.
 Conclusions of Rutherford's scattering experiment :

• Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the
α-particles passed through the gold foil without getting deflected.
• Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the
positive charge of the atom occupies very little space.
• A very small fraction of α-particles were deflected by very large
angles, indicating that all the positive charge and mass of the gold
atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom
called nucleus.
• From the data he also calculated that the radius of the nucleus (10–
15
) is about 105 times less than the radius of the atom (10-10 m)
 Rutherford’ Nuclear model of an atom
On the basis of above observations and conclusions,
Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atom.
According to this model:
(i) Atom is assumed to be hollow sphere.

(ii) The positive charge and most of the mass of the

atom was densely concentrated in extremely
small region. This very small portion of the atom
was called nucleus by Rutherford.
Rutherford’ Nuclear model of an atom
(iii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around
the nucleus with a very high speed in circular paths called
orbits, like the planets revolve around the Sun in Solar
family.

(iv) Electrons and the nucleus are held together

by electrostatic forces of attraction.
 Drawbacks of Rutherford’ atomic model
1. Rutherford could not explain the stability of an atom.
According to the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, charged
particles when accelerated should emit electromagnetic
radiation
. The energy carried by radiation comes from electronic motion.
The orbit will thus continue to shrink and ultimately electron fall
into the ground of Nucleus.
 Drawbacks of Rutherford’ atomic model
2.If the electron loss energy continuously the observed
spectrum should be continuous, but the actual
observed spectrum consists of well defined lines of
definite frequencies (i.e. discontinuous).

3. Rutherford model failed to say nothing about distribution

of the electrons around the nucleus and the energies of
these electrons.

4. Line spectra of atoms

 Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which is
characteristic of an chemical element and determines its place in the
periodic table. It was discovered by This was Henry Gwyn-Jefferies
Moseley's. Or
The number of positive charges or protons in the nucleus of
an atom of a given element, and therefore also the number of
electrons normally surrounding the nucleus. It is represented by the
letter “Z.” The atomic number symbol, Z, stands for “Zahl,” meaning
German number.
 Mass number
Mass number is an integer (whole number) equal to the sum of
the number of protons and neutrons of an atomic nucleus.
In other words, it is the sum of the number of nucleons in an atom.
It is represented by the letter “A.” Symbol A, from the German word
Atomgewicht [atomic weight]
•In 1913 radio chemist Frederick Soddy while experimenting with
the products of radioactive decay discovered that there
appeared to be more than one element at each position on the
periodic table.

•The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd.

•Experimental evidence: J.J.Thomson conducted an experiment
in which he channeled a stream of Neon ions through magnetic
and electric fields, striking a photographic plate at the other
end. He observed two glowing patches on the plate, which
suggested two different deflection trajectories.
Thomson concluded this was because some of the Neon ions
had a different mass.
 Isotopes
Isotopes are the atoms of same element have same atomic
number, but have different mass numbers. They have same chemical
properties as they have same electron and proton number.

An important point to mention regarding isotopes is that chemical properties of atoms are controlled by the
number of electrons, which are determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. Number of neutrons present
in the nucleus have very little effect on the chemical properties of an element.
 Isobars
Isobars are the atoms of different elements with same mass
number, but have different atomic numbers. They have different
chemical properties as they have different electron and proton
number.
The name was given by Alfred Walter Stewart in 1918. It is
originally taken from the combination of Greek words- isos
means equal and bar means weight.
Examples
40 40 40 76 76
18
Ar 19
K 20
Ca 32
Ce , 34
Se

24 24 58 58
11
Na 12
Mg 26
Fe , 27
Ni
DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO THE BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM

Two developments played a major role in the formulation

of Bohr’s model of atom. These were:

(i) Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which

means that radiations possess both wave like and
particle like properties.

(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra.

 1. Dual nature of electromagnetic radiation
Introduction

James Maxwell (1870) was the first to give a

comprehensive explanation about the interaction between
the charged bodies and the behaviour of electrical and
magnetic fields on macroscopic level.

He suggested that when electrically charged particle

moves under accelaration, alternating electrical and
magnetic fields are produced and transmitted. These fields
are transmitted in the forms of waves called
electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation.
 Dual nature of electromagnetic radiations

Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is

transmitted through space in the form of a wave. It can be
treated as discrete packets of energy or particles called photons
or quanta.
Light is the form of radiation known from early days and it
was supposed to be made of particles (corpuscules) by Newton.
Maxwell was again the first to reveal that light waves are
associated with oscillating electric and magnetic character.
Electromagnetic radiation wave
 General properties of electromagnetic radiation
1. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields
produced by oscillating charged particles are
perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of the wave.
2. Electromagnetic waves are transverse.
3. Unlike sound waves or water waves,
electromagnetic waves do not require medium and
can travel in vacuum.
General properties of electromagnetic
radiation
4. Electromagnetic waves can travel at the speed
of light in vaccum.
5. Electromagnetic waves can bounce off from
a surface.(i.e reflected)
6. Electromagnetic waves can change direction (i.e.
can be refracted)
7. Electromagnetic waves can spread
around corners.(i.e. diffracted)
 Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum consists of different electromagnetic
radiations which are arranged in the increasing order of their
wavelengths and decreasing order their frequencies.
 Characteristics of a
wave
1.Wavelength
Wavelength can be defined as the distance between two successive
crests or troughs of a wave. It is measured in the direction of the wave.
Wavelength is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ).
Units : Wavelength can be measured in meters, centimeters,
or nanometers (1 m = 109 nm)
 2. Frequency
Wave frequency is the number of waves that pass a fixed point in a
given amount of time.
SI unit for wave frequency is the hertz (Hz), where 1 hertz equals
1 wave passing a fixed point in 1 second.
A higher-frequency wave has more energy than a lower-frequency
wave with the same amplitude.
 3. Amplitude
The amplitude of a wave refers to the maximum amount of
displacement of a particle on the medium from its rest position. or
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum disturbance or
displacement of the medium from the equilibrium (rest) position.
The SI unit of amplitude is the metre (m).
 4. Wavenumber

Wavelength is defined as the number of wavelengths per

unit length.
The wavenumber (k) is simply the reciprocal of the
wavelength, given by the expression. k = 1 / λ
The wavenumber (k) is therefore the number of waves
or cycles per unit distance.
Units for wavenumber are (1/distance), such as 1/m, 1/cm or
1/mm.
Drawbacks of the Wave nature
of Electromagnetic radiations

1. Black body radiation

2. Photoelectric effect
3. Heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature
4. Line spectra of atoms
 2.Particle nature of Electromagnetic radiation Black
body Radiation
Black body :
An object that absorbs all radiation falling on it, at all wavelengths,
is called a black body.
Black body radiation :
When a black body is at a uniform temperature, its
emission has a characteristic frequency distribution that depends on
the temperature. Its emission is called black-body radiation.
Or
An ideal body, which emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies
uniformly, is called a black body and the radiation emitted by such a
body is called black body radiation.
Example of a Black body
Carbon black approximates fairly closely to black body. A
good physical approximation to a black body is a cavity with a
tiny hole, which has no other opening. Any ray entering the
hole will be reflected by the cavity walls and will be eventually
absorbed by the walls.
A black body is also a perfect radiator of radiant energy.
 Planck’ quantum theory
1. Matter radiate or absorb energy in discrete quantities .
discontinuously in the form of small packets or bundles called
‘quanta’. In case of light, a quantum light radiation is called
‘photon’.
2. The energy of the quantum absorbed or emitted is directly
proportional to the frequency of the light radiation.
The energy of radiation is expressed in terms of frequency as,
E=hν
Where,
E = Energy of the radiation
h = Planck’s constant (6.626×10–34 J.s)
ν= Frequency of radiation
3. A body or matter radiate or absorb energy in whole number multiples
of a quantum as nhʋ. Where n is a positive integer. So energy can be
absorbed or radiated as hʋ, 2hʋ, 3hʋ, 4hʋ---------------etc.
Evidences in support of Planck’
quantum theory :
•A prism can separate the light accordinig
to their wavelengths. If light behaves only
as a wave, then a prism should give a
continuous rainbow, but in reality it does
not.
•Emission spectrum of nitrogen gas.
 Photoelectric efffect
In 1887, H. Hertz performed a very interesting experiment in which
electrons (or electric current) were ejected when certain metals (for
example potassium, rubidium, caesium etc.) were exposed to a beam
of light. The phenomenon is called Photoelectric effect.
 Threshold energy
“The minimum amount of energy, that is required to
eject an electron from the surface of a metal is called
threshold energy or photoelectric work function".
Although the work function specifically refers to
the energy that needs to be put in, and the threshold
energy refers to the frequency required to eject an
electron, they are the same thing when calculating
with the equation.
 Threshold frequency

Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of

incident light which can cause emission of photo-
electrons from the metal surface.
Photo-emission of electrons is not possible
below threshold frequency.
V ˃ V0
 Photoelectric effect explanation
When a photon of sufficient energy strikes an electron in
the atom of the metal, it transfers its energy instantaneously
to the electron during the collision and the electron is ejected
without any time lag or delay.
Greater the energy possessed by the photon, greater will
be transfer of energy to the electron and greater the kinetic
energy of the ejected electron.
In other words, kinetic energy of the ejected electron is
proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic
radiation.
 K E of the ejected electron

hv = Energy of the striking

photon hv0 = threshold energy
hv - hv0 = Kinetic energy of the photoelectron
 Atomic Spectrum

Meaning : The spectrum is the range

of different colours which is produced when
light passes through a glass prism or through a drop of
water. A rainbow shows the colours in the spectrum.

Atomic spectra is the study of atoms (and atomic

ions) through their interaction with electromagnetic
radiation.
 Absorption spectrum
A spectrum of electromagnetic radiation transmitted
through a substance, showing dark lines or bands due to
absorption at specific wavelengths.
Formation of Absorption spectrum
 Emission spectrum
The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has
absorbed energy is called an emission spectrum. Atoms,
molecules or ions that have absorbed radiation are said to be
“excited”.
Formation of Emission spectra
 Line spectrum of Hydrogen :
When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen,
the H2 molecules dissociate and the energetically excited hydrogen
atoms produced emit electromagnetic radiation of discrete
frequencies.
Balmer showed in 1885 on the basis of experimental observations
that if spectral lines are expressed in terms of wavenumber , then the
visible lines of the hydrogen spectrum obey the following formula:
 Rydberg’ formula
The Swedish spectroscopist, Johannes Rydberg, noted that all series
of lines in the hydrogen spectrum could be described by the following
expression :

The value 109,677 cm is called the Rydberg constant for hydrogen.

–1

The first five series of lines that correspond to n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are known as

1

Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Bracket and Pfund series, respectively.

Emission spectrum and Spectral lines of
Hydrogen
Electron transitions in the Hydrogen atomic
spectrum :
BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM:-
1. The electrons in Hydrogen atom revolve around the
nucleus only in certain selected circular paths of fixed
radius and definite energy. These paths are called orbits
or energy shells or energy levels.

1. The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change

with time. As long as electron remains in a particular
orbit, it does not lose or gain energy. Therefore these
orbits are called “Stationary states”.
•
 APPLICATIONS
•
Explanation of Line Spectrum of
Hydrogen
Atom
78
 WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
Wave Nature of light:
• Diffraction
• Interference

Particle nature of light:

• Photoelectric effect
• Scattering of light

Thus light has a dual nature possessing the properties of both wave and a
particle.
h is known as Planck’s constant and its value is 6.626 × 10-34 js.
p = mv is the linear momentum of the particle.

• The de Broglie wavelength of a body is inversely proportional

to its momentum. Since the magnitude of h is very small, the
wavelength of the objects of our everyday world would be too
small to be observed.
 HEISENBERG’S
UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE
•
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
OF ATOM
• Erwin Schrodinger and Heisenberg developed the quantum
mechanical model of an atom in 1926.
• Erwin described the wave motion of electron in three dimensional
space around the nucleus by a mathematical equation known as
Schrodinger wave equation.
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL
MODEL OF ATOM
• In short the wave equation may be written as:

• The wave function ψ is a solution of the Schrodinger equation and describes

the behavior of an electron in a region of space called the atomic orbital.
• We can find energy values that are associated with particular wave functions.
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL
MODEL OF ATOM
• The solutions of wave equation gives the possible energy levels the
electron can occupy.
• The quantized energy states and corresponding wave functions
are characterized by three quantum numbers:
1) Principle quantum number (n)
2) Azimuthal quantum number (l)
3) Magnetic quantum number ( ml)
 ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
• Principle Quantum number (n ) : This quantum number determines the
size and energy of the orbital. It also identifies the shell.
With the increase in the value of “n” the number of allowed orbitals
increases. Size of an orbital also increases with increase of “n”.
The number of orbitals = n2 ,where n = 1,2,3,4,…………( non
zero integer)

“n value” and shell designation:

Value of n 1 2 3 4

Shell
designation K L M N
 ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
• Azimuthal Quantum Number (l) : This quantum number defines the
three dimensional shape of the orbital.
For a given value of n, l can have values ranging from 0 to n-
1. so possible values of l = 0,1,2,3,............(n-1)
This quantum number thus tells us about the no. of subshells or sub
levels in a given shell.

Value of 0 1 2 3 4 5 ………
l ……
Notatio s p d g h ………
f n for ……
sub-she
ll
 ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
Value of Value of Subshell No. of
n l Notation subshells in
a Shell
1 0 1s One

2 0 2s Two
1 2p
3 0 3s Three
1 3p
2 3d
4 0 4s four
1 4p
2 4d
3 4f
 ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
• Magnetic Orbital Quantum Number ( m l ): It describes the behavior of
electron in a magnetic field.

Under the applied magnetic field, electrons in a given subshell orient

themselves in certain preferred regions of space around the nucleus.
These are called orbitals.

For any sub-shell, 2l+1 values of ml are possible.

so for a given value of l, ml can have values ranging from –l to +l.

ml = -l………..0..................+l
ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
 ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
•
 IMPORTANT POINTS
• No. of subshells in nth shell = n

• No. of orbitals in a subshell = 2l + 1

• No. of electrons in a subshell = 2 (2l + 1) = 4l + 2

 SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
•
SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
S-orbital

P-Orbital
SHAPES OF D-ORBITALS
 NODES IN ATOMIC ORBITALS
• Nodes are the positions where the probability of finding the electron
is zero.

• Total no. of nodes = n-1

• Angular nodes =l
• Radial nodes = n-l-1
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
• The distribution of electrons in different orbitals is known as electronic configuration.

Aufbau Principle: “In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies”.
The orbital energy is defined by a rule known as Bohr-Bury Rule or (n+l) rule.
• Rule 1: An orbital with a lower value for (n + l) has lower energy.

• For example,

• The 4s orbital (n + l = 4+0 = 4) will be filled before a 3d orbital (n + l = 3 + 2 = 5).

• Rule 2: If the value of (n + l) is same for two orbitals then the orbital with lower value of n will
be filled first.

• For example, the 3d orbital (n + l = 3+2=5) will be filled before a 4p orbital (n + l = 4 + 1 =5).
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
• The energies of different orbitals
thus follows the order

1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s……..
and so on.
 PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
•

n=1 l=0 ml = 0

n=1 l=0 ml = 0
 HUND’S RULE OF
MAXIMUM
MULTIPLICITY
• According to this Rule, "Electron pairing will not take place in orbitals
of same energy (same subshell) until each orbital is singly filled”.

• For example: The six electrons in Carbon atom are distributed as

1s22s22p x12p y1 not as 1s22s22p x2 as shown in figure below.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
OF ELEMENTS
 Exceptional configuration of Chromium
and Copper
• Chromium (atomic no. 24) :
expected configuration = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4
actual configuration = 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5

• Copper (atomic no. 29) :

expected configuration = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9
actual configuration = 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10
 STABILITY OF COMPLETELY FILLED AND
HALF FILLED SUBSHELLS
• Symmetry of Orbital

• Exchange energy