General Chemistry Handout
Prepared by: Engr. Jenilie A. Granado
 Matter
It is anything that has mass and volume.
It can be described by using physical and
chemical properties.
 Physical Properties - these are
properties that can be observed
or measured.
Examples: color, mass, length,
volume, density, state,
conductivity, temperature.
 Chemical Properties - these
are properties that determine
whether or not a substance will
react chemically.
Examples: flammability,
reactivity
 Intensive Property - It does not
depend on the size or amount of
the sample.
Examples: color, odor, boiling
point
 Extensive Property - It depends
on the size or amount of the
sample.
Examples: mass, volume
 Classification of Matter
Image source: web.fscj.edu
 Element – It is the simplest
substances. Made up of one
atom.
 Compound – Made up of more
than one type of atom.
 Homogenous mixture – the
composition is uniform.
 Heterogeneous mixture – the
composition is not uniform
(different).
 Atomic Theory
 Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model
(1803) - Each element is
composed of extremely small
particles called atoms. All the
atoms of a given element are
identical, but they differ from
those of any other element.
Compounds form by combining
atoms
 Thomson’s Plum Pudding
Model (1904) – The atom is
made up of negative electrons
that float in a sphere of positive
charge like plums in a pudding.
He discovered electron (cathode
ray experiment) in 1897 and
isotopes in 1913.
 Rutherford’s Nuclear Model
(1911) - Discovered the nucleus
of a gold atom with his “gold foil”
experiment. The atom is mostly
empty space. There is a small,
dense center with a positive
charge. Electrons in fixed orbit
  Bohr’s Planetary Model (1913)
- Nucleus surrounded by orbiting
electrons at different energy  Nuclear Symbol Notation
levels. Electrons have definite
orbits.

 Structure of the Atom

 Proton – Positive charge (+), 1
atomic mass unit (amu); found in
the nucleus.
 Neutron – Neutral charge (0), 1
amu; found in the nucleus.  Development of Periodic Table
 Electron – Negative charge (-),
mass is VERY small.  Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner –
“Law of Triad” (1829), where the
 Counting Atoms elements were arranged in
groups of 3’s or triads like iron,
cobalt and nickel which are alike
in many properties, so with
chlorine, bromine and iodine.
 John Newlands – “Law of
Octaves” (1864), arranged the
elements in groups of 8’s like
 Atomic Number - Number of
from lithium to sodium and from
protons in nucleus.
fluorine to chlorine. These
The number of protons
elements have similar properties
determines identity of the
and are seven elements apart.
element.
 Julius Lothar Meyer –
 Mass Number (Atomic Mass) -
recognized the repeating pattern
Number of protons + neutrons.
or the periodic behavior among
Unit is g/mol.
elements. He studied the
 Isotopes - Atoms of the same
relationship of the atomic
element with varying number of
volume and the relative atomic
neutrons. Different isotopes
mass of 28 elements.
have different mass numbers
 Dmitri Mendeleev – He
because the number of
formulated the Periodic Law.
neutrons is different.
The properties of the elements
Carbon has three naturally
are periodic functions of their
occurring isotopes with C-12
atomic masses.
having the highest percent
abundance.
 Periods, Groups and Families The other A subgroups are classified
according to the first element in the
column:
Group 3A – Boron Family
Group 4A – Carbon Family
Group 5A – Nitrogen Family
Group 6A – Oxygen Family

 Classification of the Elements

Image source: learningabouttheperiodictable.weebly.com Representative Elements

 labeled to columns 1A to 7A
 The term representative element
The seven horizontal rows in the
is related to the stepwise
periodic table are called PERIODS.
addition of electrons to the s and
 Period 1 has 2 elements p sublevels of the atoms.
corresponding to 2 electrons in  Elements that belong to the
the s sublevel same group have similar
 Period 2 and 3 has 8 elements properties.
corresponding to 8 electrons in Noble Gases
the s and p sublevels.  are on the last group of the
 Periods 4 and 5 have 18 table.
elements corresponding to 18  Each element in the group has a
electrons in the s, p and d completely filled set of s and p
sublevels. orbitals.
 Period 6 has 32 elements  The noble gases are all
corresponding to 32 electrons in colorless and exhibit little or no
the s, p, d, f sublevels. reactivity.
 Period 7 is still incomplete but  Also, known as INERT GASES
elements fill up s, p, d and f Transition Elements
sublevels.  labeled to columns 1B to 8B or
B family/group.
The vertical columns are called  Note that the group starts with
GROUPS or FAMILIES, which are 3B up to 8B which has 8
divided into A and B subgroups. columns and end with 1B and
2B.
Some of the A families are designated  These sequences which contain
by names: 10 elements each, are related to
Group 1A – Alkali Metals the stepwise addition of the 10
Group 2A – Alkaline Earth Metals electrons to the d sublevel of
Group 7A – Halogens the atoms.
Group 8A – Noble Gases
 Inner Transition Elements
 additional horizontal rows below
compromise two groups of
elements which were
discovered to have similar
characteristics as Lanthanum
in the 6th period called
Lanthaniods (rare-earth
elements) and Actinium in the
7th period called Actinoids
(heavy rare elements).
 Trends in Properties
 Atomic Size (Atomic Radius) – is
the average distance between
nucleus and the valence electron.
Group Trend – As you go down a
column, atomic size increases.
Periodic Trend – As you go right to left,
atomic size increases.
 Ionic Radius
 Metals – lose e-, which means
more p+ than e- (more
attraction)
Cation Radius < Neutral Atomic Radius
(Example: 𝑨𝒍𝟑+ < 𝑨𝒍 )
 Nonmetals – gain e-, which
means more e- than p+ (not as
much attraction)
Anion Radius > Neutral Atomic Radius
(Example: 𝑶𝟐− >𝑶)
Group Trend – As you go down a
column, atomic size increases.
Periodic Trend – As you go right to left,
atomic size increases.
 Metallic Property – is the ability of the
atom to donate electrons.
Group Trend – As you go down a
column, metallic property increases.
Periodic Trend – As you go right to left,
metallic property increases.
 Reactivity – tendency of an atom to
react.
Group Trend – As you go down a
column, reactivity increases.
Periodic Trend – As you go right to left,
reactivity increases.
 Ionization Energy – is the amount of
energy required to remove an electron
from an atom or ion.
Group Trend – As you go down a
column, ionization energy decreases.
Periodic Trend – As you go right to left,
ionization energy decreases.
 Electron Affinity– is the change in
energy when an electron is accepted by
a gaseous atom to form an anion.
Group Trend – As you go down a
column, electron affinity decreases.
Periodic Trend – As you go right to left,
electron affinity decreases.
 Electronegativity– is defined as the
relative ability of an atom of an element
to attract or gain electrons.
Group Trend – As you go down a
column, electronegativity decreases.
Periodic Trend – As you go right to left,
electronegativity decreases.

Summary of Trends in Properties
Property Increasing Decreasing
(Top to Bottom, (Top to Bottom,
Right to Left) Right to Left)
Atomic Size
Metallic Property
Reactivity
Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity
Electronegativity
 Electron Structure of Atoms
Rules and Principles in Writing Electron
Configuration
 Aufbau Principle – the orbitals
of an atom must be filled up in
increasing energy levels.
 Pauli’s Exclusion Principle –
no two electrons in an atom can
have the same set of quantum
numbers and an atomic orbital
must contain a maximum of two
electrons with opposite spins.
 Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity –
the most stable arrangement of
electrons in subshells is the one
with more parallel spins.
 Quantum Numbers
 Principal Quantum Number
(𝒏) – the average distance of
the electron from the nucleus in
a particular orbital.
 Azimuthal / Angular
Momentum Quantum Number
(𝒍) – it tells the shape of the
orbital.
 Magnetic Quantum Number
(𝒎𝒍 ) – it describes the
orientation of orbital.
 Spin Quantum Number (𝒎𝒔 )
– it shows the spin of electrons.
 Chemical Bonds
Chemical bonds are the forces of
attraction that hold together atoms or
ions when they combine to form
molecules or ion pairs in a given
compound. The bonds are formed either
transferring or sharing of electrons.
 Ionic Bonding - An ionic bond is
formed by actual electron-transfer
where one of the reacting atoms
loses one or more electrons and the
other atom gains on or more
electrons. (metal to non-metal)
 Covalent Bonding - It is formed by
electron sharing, usually between
atoms of non-metals. (non-metal to
non-metal).
 Types of Chemical Reactions
 Composition reaction -is one in
which two or more substances
(either elements or compounds)
react to form one compound. This
reaction is also known as
combination, direct union or
synthesis.
General Form: A + B  AB
  Decomposition reaction - is
one in which one compound
decomposes to form two or more
new substances. Usually heat is
necessary to cause this reaction
to take place. This is also known
as analysis.
General Form: AB  A + B
 Single replacement reaction -is
one in which a metal replaces
another metal ion from a solution
or a non metal replaces a less
active non metal in a compound.
This reaction is also called
displacement or substitution.
General Form: AX + B  BX + A
AX + Y  AY + X
where A and B are metals
where X and Y are nonmetals
 Double decomposition
reaction - is one wherein two
compounds react to form two
new compounds. This involves
exchange of ion pairs. This
reaction is also called exchange
reaction or metathesis.
General Form: AX + BY  AY + BX
 Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions (REDOX
REACTIONS) - In oxidation –
reduction reactions the
substance that is oxidized is
called the reducing agent, while
the substance that is reduced is
called the oxidizing agent.
 Stoichiometry
 Avogadro’s Number - A mole is
the amount of substance that
contains Avogadro’s number of
particles equal to 6.02𝑥1023 .
The particles can be atoms,
molecules or ions.
The following compare the
number of particles per mole.
1. There are 6.02𝑥1023
atoms in 1 mole of carbon.
2. There are 6.02𝑥1023
molecules in 1 mole of 𝐻2 𝑂.
3. There are 6.02𝑥1023 𝑁𝑎+
and 6.02𝑥1023 𝐶𝑙 − in 1
mol of NaCl.
 Percent Composition - The
ratio of the total mass of each
element to the total mass of one
mole of the compound (MM)
multiplied by 100%.
 Empirical Formula - gives the
simplest ratio of the number of
moles of atoms.
 Molecular Formula - gives the
actual ratio of the number of
moles of atoms in a mole of the
compound.
Steps in getting the empirical
formula
1. Calculate the mass of each
element.
2. Convert the mass to number of
moles of atoms using molar
mass.
3. To get the simplest ratio, divide
the number of moles by the
smallest number.
 C. Mole fraction
 Solutions 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
x, solute =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
mole solute =
𝑀𝑀 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
 Solution – homogeneous
mixture of 2 or more substances. 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Parts of a Solution mole solvent =
𝑀𝑀 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛
 Solvent – dissolving medium
 Solute – dissolve substance D. Molarity

 Solubility – ability of a solvent 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

to dissolve a salt at a particular M=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛(𝑖𝑛 𝐿)
temperature.
Unsaturated Solution – solvent can still E. Molality
dissolve the solute.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Saturated Solution – if a solvent can’t m=
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
no longer dissolve a given solute at a
given temperature. F. Normality
Supersaturated Solution – if the
solvent can’t dissolve the solute and 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
N=
need to be heated for it to be dissolved. 𝑒𝑞. 𝑤𝑡 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙. 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛(𝑖𝑛 𝐿)

 Concentration of Solution
Concentration of a solution is defined as
the relative amount of solute present in a
solution.

A. Percent by mass (solid, liquid,

gas)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
w/w % = 𝑥100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛

mass of solution = mass of solute +

mass of solvent
mass of solution = (density of
solution) (volume of solution)
B. Percent by volume (liquid, gas)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
v/v % = 𝑥100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛