Introduction:

What is matter made of ?

Matter is :
460-370 av. J. C

 Discontinuous..
Leucippe  Composed of infinitely small particles of variable shapes called
'Atomos'.
 These particles are indivisible."
384-322 av. J. C

Democritus The atom does not exist , matter is:

 Infinitely divisible.
 Continuous.
 Composed of four elements: water, earth,
air, and fire.
Aristote
1. Model of ‘‘billiard ball’’
1) Biography of John Dalton: ( father of meteorology and
Chemistry )
- John Dalton: (1766-1844) He was an English physicist and
chemist, known for his work as a teacher in Manchester
and as a professor at the University of Oxford.
-Dalton was a man of diverse interests, making discoveries
in biology, meteorology, and chemistry, although his most
significant achievements were in the field of chemistry.
-He passed away in 1844, leaving behind a lasting heritage
in the field of science.
 discoveries :

Meteorology: Dalton's Law: Color theory Atomic theory:

-Dalton had a considerable -He conducted (Daltonism): -In 1803, Dalton
interest in meteorology. research on the -John Dalton then proposed the hypothesis
-He constructed barometers composition of the became interested in that matter is composed
and other scientific atmosphere the color perception of atoms of different
instruments used in this deficiencies that he masses that can
- Dalton demonstrated
field. and his brother were combine.
that the atmosphere
-He made over 200,000 is a mixture of various experiencing.
observations and published -He also proposed an
gases. -He discovers that this initial table containing
them all in a work titled
"Meteorological -He discovered the disease is genetic, and six elements (H, N, C, O,
Observations and Essay" in law of ‘’uniform its origin . P, S) and thirteen
1793. expansion of gases‘’ combinations.
and ‘’Dalton's law‘’.
 Model of ‘‘billiard ’’
 "This atomic model is a fundamental theory in chemistry and physics that
describes the structure and behavior of atoms. It was proposed by John
Dalton in the 19th century, laying the foundation for our modern
understanding of the subject. According to him, substances are composed of
atoms, and these atoms are like ‘’small, hard spheres‘’.
 This model is based on five fundamental postulates:

Example:
1 Matter is composed of atoms, which are invisible and indivisible spheres

Example:
2
All atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.
Example:
3
Atoms of different elements have different properties and masses
4
Example:

5 Atoms of simple elements combine to form new products.

 Limits and errors:
 It is true that John Dalton was one of the first scientists to
formalize a clear distinction between simple substances and
compounds in the context of his atomic theory. He proposed a
table of chemical elements containing six main elements, as well
as thirteen possible combinations of these elements, in his work
titled 'New System of Chemical Philosophy' published in 1808,
laying the foundations for the current theory. However, like all
scientific models, his model was open to improvement, with
certain limitations and gaps:

The atoms are not the smallest particles of matter. In fact, atoms are
composed of smaller particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons.

All chemical elements can form molecules composed of identical atoms. For example, in the case
of pure oxygen, the oxygen molecule is represented by O2.

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons but a different number of
neutrons, i.e. they are not identical in all properties. This is called isotopy.
 Limits and errors:

Dalton was unable to explain how atoms bond to form molecules or chemical
compounds. His model lacked the notion of chemical bonding.

Isotopes may differ slightly in mass, although they share the same number of protons and therefore retain
the same fundamental chemical properties.

The absence of any distinction between neutral atoms and ions in his atomic
theory.
 Model of ‘‘plum de pudding ’’:
1)Biography de Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940) :
Is a British physicist , He was interested in all the problems of physics in general, but it was the
exploration of the electrical properties of matter that he considered to be the main aim of his
research.

Discovery of the electron Thomson used the cathode ray tube to study cathode
In 1897 radiation, which eventually led to his discovery of the
electron, a negatively charged subatomic particle called
the ''electron''.

The "plum pudding" Thomson imagined a model of the atom with a

atomic model in 1904. positively-charged spherical nucleus containing
negatively-charged electrons, like raisins in a loaf of
bread; this model was later improved by Ernest
Rutherford (Nobel Prize in Physics 1906).
Model of ‘‘plum de pudding ’’:
1 German hypothesis
Wave

Nature of
cathode
rays

 Thomson conducts a series

of experiments on cathode
Negatively - rays using a tube invented by
charged the British physicist William
2 British hypothesis
particle Crookes to verify the second
hypothesis.

Discovery of electrons

Cathode ray tube| Crookes tube

 Model of ‘‘plum de pudding ’’:
• Following his research on cathode rays, Thomson concluded that the cathode ray is composed of
matter and that this matter is negatively charged. This led to the discovery of a subatomic
particle, the ‘’electron’’.
• In 1904 , he proposed the first atomic model::

1
The atom is no longer indivisible.
2
Electrons are uniformly distributed throughout the atom.
3
The atom is a sphere full of positive charge.
4 The atom is neutral, with the negative charges of the electrons
being canceled out by the positive charges of the sphere.

Thomson's model was compared like plums in a pudding..

 Limits and errors:
• Thomson's model was a step forward in our understanding of atomic structure, but it can
still be improved upon because it has some major gaps.
• One of these errors:
-The electrons move freely within a cloud of positively charged substance..
• Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1911 revealed its limitations :

Absence of internal
structure.

The stability of the atom

Failure to explain alpha

particle diffusion