Physical Science Notes
Second Semester
Chapter 1:
 Physical Science- study of the inorganic world or non-
living things
 4 main branches are astronomy, physics, chemistry, and
earth sciences—which includes meteorology and
geology
- Chemistry- all about matter; elements and compounds
composed of atoms, molecules and ions—composition,
structure, properties, behavior, and the changes they
undergo during a reaction with other substances
- Physics- matter and its motion—force, energy, mass,
and charge
- Astronomy- heavenly bodies; study of everything in the
universe beyond earth’s atmosphere—sun, moon,
planets, and stars
- Astrology- star formation; pseudoscience that claims to
divine information about human affairs and terrestrial
events by studying the movements and relative
positions of celestial objects
Atoms from the eyes of philosophers and scientists
THE EARLY ATOMIC THEORY
Timeline on a brief history on matter and atoms.
- (624-546 BCE). Thales of Miletus wasa the first to ask and
propose an answer to the question “What is matter composed of?”
- H2O as the ultimate substance that constituted matter.
-450 BC. Empedocles asserted that all things are composed of four
primal elements: Earth, air, fire, and water.
- Later on, Leucippus (5th century BCE) and his student
Democritus (460-370 BCE) introduced the first glimmers of
atomic theory by asking whether or not a substance could be
divided continuously.
- Leucippus concluded that one would arrive at fragments of a
material that can no longer be divided.
- He is considered the first atomist, but is less know well-known
than Democritus, who later expanded Leucippus’ atomic
hypothesis.
-Democritus dubbed as the father of atomism, thought atoms were
solid and indestructible.
- He proposed that all matter is made up of very small particles
called atoms, which cannot be divided into smaller units.
- He also believed that the universe only had atoms and empty
space, which he called void.
-380 – 322 BCE. Aristotle rejected Atomism.
-Stated that only observable things could be proven true. Since
atoms are not visible, their presence could not be verified by
observation. Instead, he believed that water, air, fire, and earth
were the fundamental elements.
-Ether the fifth element. It includes the stars, the sun, and filled the
seeming emptiness of space.
- Alchemy is a form of chemistry and speculative philosophy
practiced in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and concerned
principally with discovering methods for transmuting baser metals
into gold and with finding a universal solvent and an elixir of life
(Philosopher’s stone).
-Robert Boyle (1627-1691) believed that atoms indeed exist even
though they are not visible to the naked eye.
- He used J-shaped tube experiment.
- 1743-1794. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier proposed the law of
conservation of mass.
- In Chemistry, law of conservation of mass states that in chemical
reaction, mass is neither created nor destroyed. Matter can undergo
chemical changes, but the total mass before and after a reaction
should not change.
- 1799. Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite proportion.
- In Chemistry, law of definite proportion states that a given
chemical compound always contains its component elements in
fixed ratio (mass) and does not depend on its source and method of
preparation.
- 1808. John Dalton formulated the atomic theory and proposed the
law of multiple proportion.
- When two elements combine with each other to form two or more
compounds, the ratios of the masses of one element that combines
with the fixed mass of the other are simple whole numbers.
- 1808. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
-Elements are made up of small indivisible particles called atom.
-In any given pure element, the mass and other properties of all the
atoms are the same. Atoms of different elements differ in mass and
other properties.
-1808. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
-Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element.
The constituent or constant whole number ratio.
- In a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
They simply combine, separate, or rearrange.
-1808. Dalton published a polished version of his atomic theory in
a book New System of Chemical Philosophy.
-1869. Dmitry Mendeleev arranged the known elements in a
periodic table based on their atomic mass.
-1890. Antoine Becquerel and Marie Curie observed that
radioactivity causes some atoms to break down spontaneously.
-Alpha, beta, gamma rays.
-1895. Wilhelm Rontgen discovered X-rays. He accidentally
learned that the darkening of thickly wrapped photographic plates
occurs after exposing them to uranium compound.
-1897. Joseph John Thompson discovered electrons.
-Thompson deduced that atoms could be divided further,
disproving Dalton’s idea that atoms are indivisible.
-Through cathode ray tube experiment.
-To test the properties of the particles, Thomson placed two
oppositely-charged electric plates around the cathode ray. The
Physical Science Notes
Second Semester

cathode ray was deflected away from the negatively-charged - Charge(q) of an atom is written as a subscript at the
electric plate and towards the positively-charged plate. This right-hand side of the chemical symbol.
indicated that the cathode ray was composed of negatively-charged
particles.

-1904. Joseph John Thompson suggested the plum pudding model

of the atom (negative electrons dispersed in a positive structure.)

-1908-1917. Robert Millikan found that the charge of an electron is

equal to 1.6022x10-19C

-1910-1911. Ernest Rutherford observed that atoms are mostly

empty space.
He critically analyzed Thomson’s plum pudding model of the
atom. He conducted gold foil experiment.

-1913. Neil Bohr proposed an atomic model that shows electrons

move in concentric orbits around the nucleus.

- 1919. Ernest Rutherford discovered protons. 1.6022x-19 C.

- 1.67262x10-24 grams

- 1932. James Chadwick discovered neutrons.

- No charge particle.

* Atomic number and atomic mass

Atomic number (Z)

-It serves as the identity of atom.

-Refers to the number of protons in the nucleus of each
atom of an element.
- In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to
the number of electrons.
- example= Carbon-12

Atomic mass (A)

- The total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus
of an atom of an element.
- All atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons. Except H
which has 1 proton and no neutron.

- Dmitry arranged the elements according to their atomic

masses in 1869. however, Mosely argued and confirmed
in 1913 that the basis for the arrangement in the
periodic
table should be the atomic number.

Isotopes
- Atoms that have the same atomic number but different
atomic masses.
- Examples: protium, deuterium, tritium.

Chemical reactions
- Involves only the electrons that are found outside the
nucleus.
- During chem rxn, the number of protons remains the
same in the atomic nucleus, but the electron may be lost
by an atom and gained by another.

Ions – charges atoms

- Cation – positive charged ion.
- Anion – negative charged ion.
Physical Science Notes
Second Semester

Chapter 2: Quantum Model of the Atoms

- Light has both wave-like and particle-like properties.

- 1924, French physicist Louis de Broglie initially
thought that electrons behave both like a wave and a
particle. However, he later emphasized that electrons
behave more like a wave. Hence, De Broglie proposed
that electrons be considered as a wave confined in the
space surrounding an atomic nucleus.
- German Physicist Werner Heisenberg proposed
uncertainty principle, He stated that it is impossible to
simultaneously determine both the position and the
momentum of an electron.

 Quantum numbers describe the atomic orbitals as well

as the properties of the electrons in those orbitals.
- Principal quantum number (n) = size of the orbital. - Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in
(positive integers (1,2,3….) as values. an atom can possess the same set of quantum numbers.
For example, an electron with n=1 occupies the first -
energy level closest to the nucleus.
A shell is composed of a set of orbitals that have the
same principal quantum number.
- Azimuthal Quantum Number (l), also known as angular
momentum quantum number, corresponds to the shape
of the orbital. Allowed values of l include 0 and all
positive integers less than or equal to n-1.
- Subshell- refers to 1 or more orbitals with the same
values of n and l.
- Magnetic Quantum Numbers (ml) indicates the
orientation of an orbital around the nucleus. The value
of ml are integers from –l to +1. (2l+1)
- Spin Quantum Number (ms) indicates the spins of the - Hund’s rules of maximum multiplicity suggests that
electron and may have only two possible values. -1/2 the most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is
and +1/2. Signs only refers to the orientation of the the one with the greatest number of parallel spins. This
spin. means that each orbital in a subshell is singly occupied
before pairing of electrons occurs.

- Electron configuration uses the symbols of the orbitals

and the number of electrons (written in subscripts) that
occupy each orbitals.
“Si Sam Pumasok Sa Pinto. Sa Door Pinto. Sa Door
Pinto. Sa Front Door Pinto. Sa Front. Door Pinto”
- Orbital diagram consists of boxes and arrows that
represent the orbitals and the electrons, respectively.
The up and down orientations of the arrows represent
 Noble Gas Electron Configuration
the two magnetic spins of the electrons.
- Long electron configurations, especially those for
 Representing electron distribution follows three general
elements with high atomic number, can be conveniently
rules – Aufbau principle, Pauli principle, and Hund’s
shortened using core symbols.
rule.
- Aufbau principle states that electrons should occupy
first the orbitals with lower energy before those with
higher energy.
Physical Science Notes
Second Semester

-  Halogens- Produce salt 7A

 Noble gases- less reactive 8A
 Metals- best conductor or electricity—right side
 Metalloids- staircase elements (boron, silicon, arsenic,
tellurium, polonium, and astatine)
 Non-metals- left side—gas and liquid
- Molecules capable of independent existence atoms of
different or same elements combined
- Chemical Bond- attraction between atoms or ions in a
molecule
- Elements either share or transfer their valence electron
to produce a more stable configuration
- Valence Electrons- found in the outermost shell of an
atom
 Gilbert Newton Lewis
- Molecular Formula- shows the actual number of atoms
of each element in molecule
- Lewis symbols (also known as Lewis dot diagrams or
 Arrangement of Elements in the electron dot diagrams) are diagrams that represent the
Periodic Table valence electrons of an atom.
- It serves as a respiratory of information of more than a - Lewis structures (also known as Lewis dot structures or
hundred elements. The arrangement of the elements in electron dot structures) are diagrams that represent the
the periodic table had gone through several valence electrons of atoms within a molecule.
modifications as more information about each element - Provides information about the relative location of
were found out. atoms
- The very first version of periodic table was developed - These Lewis symbols and Lewis structures help
in the 19th century. 1869, two chemists- Julius Lothar visualize the valence electrons of atoms and molecules,
Meyer (German) and Dmitry Mendeleev (Russian)- whether they exist as lone pairs or within bonds.
separately proposed the arrangement of elements based
on increasing atomic masses
- Five years earlier, English chemist John A. R.
Newlands already attempted to established an -
arrangement based on increasing atomic masses and
observed regularities every eight element, law of octave
- The proposal of Mendeleev was an improvement of
Newland’s efforts. With his arrangement, Mendeleev
gave a more reliable grouping of elements that share
similar chemical properties.
- He also used the Sanskrit word “eka” (meaning “first”)
to refer to some elements. For example, eka-aluminum
means the first element next to aluminum in the same
column. Mendeleev predicted the eka-aluminum (Ea)-
now named gallium-to have a mass of 68 amu
- Inconsistencies and discrepancies were later noted for
the other elements such as Ar, which was predicted to
have an atomic mass greater than K.
- 1n 1911, English scientist Henry Gwyn Jeffrey Mosely
realized that aside from atomic mass, atomic number is
another property that supports periodicity. The atomic
number, which relates to the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom, determines the order of elements in
the table.

 Modern Periodic Table

 Periods or series- horizontal 7 periods
 Families or groups- vertical 18 families
 Representative or main group elements- s and p block
 Transition elements- d block
 Inner transition elements- f block
 Lanthanide elements 51-71
 Actinide elements- 81-103
 Alkali metals (more reactive) 1A
 Alkaline earth metals Family 2A
 Physical Science Notes
Second Semester

Compound More ∆EN Type of Chemical

Chapter 3:Chemical Bonding Electronegative bond
Atom
Chemical bond is an electrical attraction between the nuclei and
valence electrons of an atom and which binds atoms together.
Also know as Intramolecular force.

Cl and K Chlorine 3.0-0.8≈2.2 Ionic

Cl and C Chlorine 3.0-2.5≈0.5 Polar Covalent

Cl and Cl None (same) 2.1-2.1≈0 Nonpolar Covalent

Dipole
Symbolized by an arrowhead pointing to the more electronegative
atom, and a crossed tail located at the less electronegative atom.
Figure 3.4 Electronegativity

3 types of chemical bonding

Ionic Transfer of Metal to Cation and anion
electrons Nonmetal pair
A.K.A formula
unit

Covalent Sharing of Nonmetal to Polar and

electrons Nonmetal Nonpolar

Metallic Metal to Metal

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Electronegativity Isomerism
- The measure of the tendency of an atom to attract The versatility of carbon enables it to bond in many different ways,
electrons toward itself. producing different configurations.
2 types of Covalent Bond In the study of hydrocarbons, the expanded structural and
Nonpolar covalent- electrons are equally shared by the bonded condensed structural formula are commonly used instead of
atoms. molecular formula.
Polar covalent- unequal sharing of electrons.
Constitutional isomerism
Compounds which have the same chemical formula but different
Type of ∆EN structural formula.
Chemical bond Ex: butene and 2-methypropane
Pentene and cyclopentane
Ionic ∆EN ≥ 1.7
Classes of hydrocarbons
Polar Covalent 1.7 > ∆EN > 0.4 Hydrocarbons means organic compounds which contain only
carbon and hydrogen atom.
Nonpolar Covalent ∆EN ≤ 0.4 Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbon

Naming hydrocarbons
The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)
system is used for the naming organic compounds.

Sample Problems Alkanes

Also known as Paraffins
Simplest hydrocarbon contain a single bond of carbon-carbon.
With general formula of CnH2n+2.
Physical Science Notes
Second Semester

The simplest alkane is methane, CH4. 6. In cases where an alkene has two or more double bonds,
Note: Methane, ethane, propane, and butane exist in gaseous form the prefixes di, tri, tetra, penta, and so on are used as
while the rest are in liquid form. part of the parent name.
7. Place the location number of the alkyl group in front of
Alkenes the resulting name.
Also known as Olefins
Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more double bonds between Naming Cycloalkynes
carbon atoms. CnH2n. Determine the parent chain.
2. Number the substituents of the ring beginning at one substituent
so that the nearest substituent is numbered the lowest possible. If
Alkynes there are multiple choices that are still the same, go to the next
Also known as Acethylenes. Unsaturated hydrocarbons with triple substituent and give it the lowest number possible.
bonds between carbon atoms. CnH2n-2. 3. Name the substituents and place them in alphabetical order.
More specific rules for naming substituted cycloalkanes with
Aromatic hydrocarbons examples are given below.
Also known as Arenes. Contains at least one aromatic ring. These 1. Determine the cycloalkane to use as the parent. If there
are termed aromatic because most of the these compounds have is an alkyl straight chain that has a greater number of
strong fragrant odors. carbons than the cycloalkane, then the alkyl chain must
Benzene C6H6 be used as the primary parent chain. Cycloalkanes
substituents have an ending "-yl". If there are two
THINGS TO REMEMBER! cycloalkanes in the molecule, use the cycloalkane with
1. Separate numbers from words with hyphens (-). the higher number of carbons as the parent.
2. Separate numbers from other numbers with commas (,). 2. When there is only one substituent on the ring, the ring carbon
3. Arrange attachments in alphabetical order. (Example: 1- attached to the substituent is automatically carbon #1. Indicating
ethyl-7-methyloctane) the number of the carbon with the substituent in the name is
optional.
Naming alkanes 3) If there are multiple substituents on the ring, number the carbons
1. Locate the parent chain or longest continuous chain of of the cycloalkane so that the carbons with substituents have the
carbon. lowest possible number. A carbon with multiple substituents should
2. Number of carbon atoms of the parent chain starting have a lower number than a carbon with only one substituent or
from whichever end of the chain gives the location of functional group. One way to make sure that the lowest number
the first branch. possible is assigned is to number the carbons so that when the
3. Name the parent chain. numbers corresponding to the substituents are added, their sum is
4. Name the alkyl group attached to the branch. the lowest possible.
Attach the name of the alkyl group as prefix of the
parent chain.
5. Place the location number of the alkyl group in front of
the resulting name.

Naming alkenes
1. Locate the parent chain or longest continuous chain of
carbon.
2. The parent chain must include the double bond eve if it
takes it shorter than the others.
3. Name the parent chain.
4. Name the alkyl group attached to the branch.
5. Attach the name of the alkyl group as prefix of the
parent chain.
6. In cases where an alkene has two or more double bonds,
the prefixes di, tri, tetra, penta, and so on are used as
part of the parent name.
7. Place the location number of the alkyl group in front of
the resulting name.

Naming alkynes
1. Locate the parent chain or longest continuous chain of
carbon.
2. The parent chain must include the triple bond even if it
takes it shorter than the others.
3. Name the parent chain.
4. Name the alkyl group attached to the branch.
5. Attach the name of the alkyl group as prefix of the
parent chain.
Physical Science Notes
Second Semester