Science

Lesson 1: The Particle Nature of Matter

Matter- anything that occupies space and has mass.
5 States of Matter:
- Solid- has fixed shape and volume; does not follow the shape of its container.
- Liquid- has fixed volume but no definite shape; it takes the shape of the portion of the
container it occupies.
- Gas- no definite shape and volume; it assumes the shape and volume of its container.
States of Matter Solid Liquid Gas
Arrangement of Particles are closely Particles are closely Particles are very far
Particles packed packed but more away from each other
empty spaces

Plasma
- Was discovered by Sir William Crookes.
- Is defined as an ionized gas that conducts electricity.
- Usually forms at very high temperature.
Bose-Einstein condensate
- Was conceptualized by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in the early 1920s.
- Is a group of gaseous atoms liquefied at an extremely cold temperature of a little above
absolute zero.
- The formation of Bose-Einstein condensate was first accomplished by Eric Cornell and
Carl Wieman in 1995.

Pure Substance
- Is either an element or a compound.
- Is matter having definite composition and distinct properties.
Element
- Is a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances
- It is composed of one kind of atoms
Jons Jakob Berzelius
- A Swedish chemist, was first to use letters for the chemical symbols of elements.
- Most of the chemical symbols of elements are based on English or the Latin names of
the elements.

O- supports human life.

Ca- makes our teeth and bones strong.
Hg- used to form dental amalgam.
Cu- used in electrical wiring.
Compound
- Is a substance that is made up of two or more elements, and thus composed of two or
more kinds of atoms.
- Have wide applications at home and industry.
- Each compound may be represented by a chemical formula, a symbol that shows the
relative proportions of the number of atoms of the elements that compose the substance.
Mixture
- Is a combination of two or more substances in which each substance retains its own
properties.
- Can have a varying composition.
Homogeneous Mixture
- Is matter having uniform appearance throughout.
Heterogeneous Mixture
- Is matter whose appearance not the same throughout.
Properties of Matter
Physical Properties
- Are those properties that can be determined without changing the composition of the
material.
- Texture, color, odor, length, mass, density, boiling point and freezing point are examples
of these properties.
- Are further divided into extrinsic and intrinsic properties.
Extrinsic Properties
- Properties that depend on the amount of the sample being examined.
- Examples are volume, mass, and length.
Intrinsic Properties
- Properties that do not depend on the quantity of the sample being examined.
- Examples are temperature, odor, density and freezing point.
Chemical Properties
- Properties that describe how a substance may change to form another substance.

Changes in Matter
Physical Change
- Is a change in matter that involves no change in chemical composition; thus, there is no
new substance formed.
- Physical properties are usually altered.
- Examples are melting of ice, breaking of chalk
Chemical Change
 - One or more new substances are formed
- Examples are burning of paper, ripening of bananas
Nuclear Change
- Involves a change in the particles in the center of the atom and thus, a new element
forms.
- This change will be dealt with clearly in the lesson that discusses nuclear reactions.
- Examples are explosion of an atomic bomb, productions of solar energy.

Lesson 2: Atomic Structure

The Development of Atomic Theory
Greeks
- Were the first to conceptualized atoms.
- Believed that there were only 4 fundamental elements namely earth, water, air, and fire.
Leucippus
- A Greek philosopher who had an intuition that there must be ultimate tiny particles into
which matter could be subdivided.
Democritus
- Proposed that matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles which he called atomos,
meaning “indivisible”.
- He believed that each kind of atom was distinct and that substances were mixtures of
different kinds of atoms.
- Greeks believed at this time that there were only 4 fundamental elements namely earth,
water, air, and fire.
Empedocles
- Introduced the four basic elements of matter in 450 B.C.

Aristotle
- Declared that matter could be subdivided indefinitely; he rejected the existence of atoms.
Francis Bacon
- An English scientist and philosopher;
- He believed that atom, which he called corpuscula, was the primary particle of matter.
Daniel Sennert
- A German scientist;
- Believed that atoms represented the last degree of subdivision and the first degree of
physical composition of matter; however, he still believed that air, water, earth and fire
were the elements that composed matter.
Isotopes- elements having different masses
Joachim Jungius
- German chemist;
- Defined an element as a unitary substance that cannot be decomposed into other
substances during physical or chemical changes.
Robert Boyle
- English Chemist;
- Stressed that the basin nature of elements changes if they decompose chemically.
John Dalton
- An English scientist and school teacher;
- Who was the first to formulate a more precise definition of atoms which could be
supported by experimental evidence when he presented in 1808 his atomic theory.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matter is composed of atoms, the extremely small indivisible particles of any element.
2. Atoms of a given element are identical in mass, size shape and other properties and are
different from atoms of other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of two or more elements; the ratio of the numbers
of atoms of any two of the elements present in a compound is fixed and can be
expressed in simple whole numbers.
4. In any chemical reaction, atoms of one element are not changed into atoms ofi another
elements but recombine only to form different substances; a chemical reaction does not
result in the creation or destruction of atoms.
Postulate 3 is a restatement of the Law of Definite Composition, which states that the
relative numbers and kinds of atoms in a compound are constant. This is law is proposed by
Joseph Proust a French scientist. Law of Conservation of Mass, a law proposed by Antoine
Laurent Lavoiser, states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction;
that is the total mass of the substances present before a chemical reaction is the same as
the total mass after the reaction. The discovery of subatomic particles led to an alteration on
the first postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory. The claim of postulate 2 that atoms of the same
element are identical in mass was found to be defective when isotopes were discovered.
Law of Multiple Proportions states that a given quantity of an element may combine with
different quantities of another element to form different compounds.
The Electrical Behavior of Some Types of Matter
Benjamin Franklin
- Discovered two types of electrical charges which he named positive and negative
charges.
- Rubbing- causes something to be either added to or removed from an object.
Svante Arrhenius
- A Swedish chemist, proved in his doctoral thesis that compounds that conduct electricity
in solutions dissociate into positively and negatively charged particles.
Radioactivity
 - The release of radiant energy from matter, was accidentally discovered by Henri
Becquerel when he was studying fluorescent uranium ore minerals.
- With his student, Marie Curie, they studied the pitchblende to find out if there was
something it released that exposed the film.
- Marie Curie and her daughter, Irene Joliot-Curie died from leukemia due to exposure of
to much radiation.
Three types of Radiation emanating from pitchblende:
Alpha Particles- positively particles
Beta Particles- negatively charged particles
Gamma Particles- no charge particles
Radioactive elements- are elements that exhibit radioactivity
Cathode Rays and Electrons
William Crookes
- Discovered a device called cathode ray tube
- He observed that a glowing beam of rays originating from the cathode traveled in a
straight path to the anode.
- He called the beam cathode rays because it comes from the cathode.
Joseph John Thomson
- Applied an external electric field to the cathode ray tube. He found out that the beam of
the cathode rays is deflected toward the positive plate, this behavior of the cathode rays
shows that they are made up of negative particles.
George Johnstone Stoney
- Named the negatively charged particles into electrons.
Robert Milikan
- Was able to determine the charge of the electrons his value for the charge of the
electron 1.60 x 10-19 coloumbs.
Canal Rays and Protons
Eugen Goldstein
- He called the rays canal rays; obviously, these rays possess a positive charge.
Wilhelm Wien
- Discovered that the mass of the canal ray particle varied with the gas used in the tube;
the lightest mass was met when hydrogen was used in the tube.
- Positive charged particles are called protons.
Neutrons
James Chadwick
- Discovered high-energy particles having no charge and with the same mass as the
proton.
 - No charge particles are called Neutrons.

Rutherford’s Experiment: The Existence Of the Nucleus

Ernest Rutherford
- Headed a team of scientists to determine the structure of the atom through an alpha-
scattering experiment.
The Subatomic Particles
Nucleons- the particles in the nucleus.
Mass Number- the number particles in the nucleus.
Henry Moseley
- Discovered a unique characteristic that each element has a specific number of protons.

Number of p+= atomic number

Mass number= no of p+ + no. of n
Number of e- = no of p+
Energy Levels
Niels Bohr
- Introduced his theory about the locations of the electrons of an atom.
- Ground state- lowest energy level
- Excited state- higher energy level

Energy Level Maximum Number of Electrons

K or 1 2
L or 2 8
M or 3 18 or 8
N or 4 32, 18 or 8
O or 5 32, 18 or 8
P or 6 18 or 8
Q or 7 8

Energy Level Sublevels

K or 1 1s
L or 2 2s 2p
M or 3 3s 3p 3d
N or 4 4s 4p 4d 4f
O or 5 5s 5p 5d 5f
P or 6 6s 6p 6d
Q or 7 7s 7p
 Sublevel Maximum Number of Electrons
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14

Orbitals
Sublevel Name of Orbitals Number of Orbitals
s s orbital 1
p p orbitals 3
d d orbitals 5
f f orbitals 7

Electron Configuration
- is a way of distributing the electrons of the atom among the orbitals of the atom.

1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p

Hund’s Rule
- Electrons should enter the orbitals of a given sublevel singly with the same spin before
any pairing is done.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
- Two electrons occupying an orbital should have opposite spins.

Lesson 3: The Periodic Table of Elements

Johann Wolfgang Dobreiner
- Grouped elements into triads.
Berzelius
- Published his table of atomic masses containing 54 elements.
John Newlands
 - He arranged elements in groups of seven members each and called each group an
octave.
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev
- Is regarded as the one who invented the periodic table.
- Arranged the 60 known elements in his periodic table in horizontal rows with increasing
atomic mass.
Julius Lothar Meyer
- Together with Mendeleev, they proposed periodic tables almost simultananeously in
1869.
Features of a Periodic Table
- The periodic table is divided into horizontal rows called periods or series and vertical
columns called groups or families.
Some groups have special names such as:
1. Alkali metals – Group IA except H
2. Alkaline earth metals – Group IIA
3. Coinage metals – Group IB
4. Halogens – Group VIIA
5. Noble gases – Group VIIIA
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
Metals – are elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity, generally shiny, solid at
room temperature, malleable and ductile.
Nonmetals- are elements that are poor conductors of electricity and heat and generally gases
and brittle solids.
Metalloids- elements that exhibit some properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals.
Reactive and Nonreactive Elements
Ionization energy- is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from gaseous atom.
First ionization energy- the energy needed to remove the first electron from an atom.
Second Ionization energy- the energy needed to remove the second electron.
Electron Affinity- the energy change associated with adding an electron to a gaseous atom.

Ionization Energy Reactivity

High Low
Low High

Cat Ion- positively charged ion

An Ion- negatively charged ion