Module-1

QUANTUM PHYSICS
University Syllabus:

(Prerequisites: Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect Matter waves-wave nature of particles,
de-Broglie relation, Davisson-Germer experiment)

de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves; properties of matter waves; wave packet, phase velocity and group velocity;
Wave function; Physical interpretation of wave function; Heisenberg uncertainty principle; nonexistence of electron in
nucleus; Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation; time independent wave equation; Particle trapped in one
dimensional infinitepotential well,Quantum Computing.

The de Broglie’s Hypothesis:

In 1923, Louis de Broglie predicted that since light exhibited both wave and particle behaviour,
particles should also. He proposed that, a particle of mass ‘m’, moving with velocity ‘V’ must
be associated with wave and wavelength associated with the particle is called de Broglie’s
wavelength:

ℎ
𝜆 =
𝑝

Everything has a wavelength, but the wave properties of matter are only observable for very
small objects. If you work out the wavelength of a moving baseball, for instance, you will find
that the wavelength is far too small to be observable. The probability of finding a particle at a
particular place at particular point is related to the wave associated with the particle. The larger
the amplitude of the wave at a particular point, the larger the probability that the electron will
be found there. Similarly, the smaller the amplitude the smaller the probability. In fact, the
probability is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave.

Why Don’t We See the Wave Properties of a Baseball?

A baseball of mass 140 g traveling at a speed of 60 mi/h (27 m/s) has a de Broglie
wavelength given by

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠
𝜆 = = = 1.7 × 10−34 𝑚
𝑝 0.14𝐾𝑔 × 27𝑚/𝑠

Even a nucleus (whose size is 10-15m) is much too large to diffract this incredibly
small wavelength! This explains why all macroscopic objects appear particle-like.
PHASE VELOCITY:
The velocity of propagation of a wave with single wavelength is given by
𝜔 𝐸
𝑣𝑝 = 𝜈𝜆 = =
𝑘 𝑃
2𝜋 ℎ
Where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 , 𝜆 = 𝑘 , 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 and 𝑃 = 𝜆
GROUP VELOCITY:
Consider 𝑦1 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔1 𝑡 − 𝑘1 𝑥) and 𝑦2 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔2 𝑡 − 𝑘2 𝑥)as two waves with slightly
different angular velocities 𝜔1 and 𝜔2
Superposition of the waves are given as
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔1 𝑡 − 𝑘1 𝑥) + 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔2 𝑡 − 𝑘2 𝑥)
𝜔 +𝜔 𝑘 +𝑘 𝜔 −𝜔 𝑘 −𝑘
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 2𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 1 2 2 𝑡 − 1 2 2 𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 1 2 2 𝑡 − 1 2 2 𝑥)
𝛥𝜔 𝛥𝑘
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 2𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑡− 𝑥)
2 2
𝛥𝜔 𝑑𝜔
Hence Group velocity 𝑣𝑔 = 𝛥𝑘 = 𝑑𝑘
Velocity of particle is equal to Group velocity:
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑝
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝜔 1
= (∵ E = ℏ𝜔)
𝑑𝐸 ℏ
𝑑𝑝
= ℏ (∵ 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘)
𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝐸 𝑝 𝑝2
= = 𝑣 (∵ 𝐸 = )
𝑑𝑝 𝑚 2𝑚
1
𝑣𝑔 = × 𝑣 × ℏ = 𝑣
ℏ

WAVE GROUPS AND DISPERSION

The matter wave representing a moving particle must reflect the fact that the particle
has a large probability of being found in a small region of space only at a specific time. This
means that a traveling sinusoidal matter wave of infinite extent and constant amplitude cannot
properly represent a localized moving particle. What is needed is a pulse, or “wave group,” of
limited spatial extent. Such a pulse can be formed by adding sinusoidal waves with different
wavelengths. The resulting wave group can then be shown to move with a speed vg (the group
speed) identical to the classical particle speed. This argument is shown schematically in Figure
5.17 and will be treated in detail after the introduction of some general ideas about wave groups.
Properties of matter waves.
1. The lighter the particle greater the wavelength associated with it.
2. Lesser the velocity of the particle, longer the wavelength associated with it.
3. When v= 0 then 𝜆 = ∞ and when v = ∞ then 𝜆 = 0
4. Matter waves produced when the particle in motion are charged or uncharged
5. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves
6. Matter waves travel faster than velocity of light.
7. Wave nature of matter gives uncertainty in the position of the particle.
Wave Function(𝛙) and its Physical Significance:

The wave function 𝛙 enables all possible information about the particle. 𝛙 is a complex
quantity and has no direct physical meaning. It is only a mathematical tool to represent the
variable physical quantities in quantum mechanics.

The value of wave function is associated with a moving particle at the position co-ordinates
(x,y,z) in space, and at the time instant ‘t’ is related in finding the particle at particular positon
and particular period of time ‘t’.

Even though 𝛙 has no physical meaning, the square of its absolute magnitude |𝛙2 | gives a
definite meaning and |𝛙2 | represents the probability density ‘p’ of locating the particle at a
place at a given instant of time. And has real and positive solutions.

𝛙 (𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳,𝐭) = 𝐚 + 𝐢𝐛

𝛙∗ (𝐱, 𝐲, 𝐳,𝐭) = 𝐚 − 𝐢𝐛

𝐩 = 𝛙𝛙∗ = |𝛙2 | = 𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 , as 𝑖 2 = −1

Where ‘P’ is called the probability density of the wave function.

If the particle is moving in a volume ‘V’, then the probability of finding the particle in a volume
element dV, surrounding the point x,y,z and at instant ‘t’ is P dV
+∞
∫−∞ |ψ|2 𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡

This is called normalization condition.

+∞
∫−∞ |ψ|2 𝑑𝑉 = 0 if particle does not exist.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:

According to Classical mechanics, a moving particle at any instant has fixed position in space
and definite momentum which can be determined simultaneously with any desired accuracy.
This assumption is true for objects of appreciable size but fails in particles of atomic
dimensions.

Since a moving atomic particle must be regarded as a de-Broglie wave group, there is a limit
to measure particle properties. The particle may be found anywhere within the wave group
moving with group velocity. If the group is narrow, it is easier to locate its position, but the
uncertainty in calculating its velocity and momentum increases. If the group is wide, its
momentum is estimated easily, but there is great uncertainty about the exact location of the
particle.

Heisenberg a German scientist in 1927, gave uncertainty principle which states that “The
determination of exact position and momentum of a moving particle simultaneously is
impossible with great accuracy’’.
In general, if △x represents the uncertainty in measurement of position of particle along x axis,
and △p represents uncertainty in measurement of momentum, then product of these two
uncertainties is always a constant quantity, which is given by

(△ x). (△ p) ≥ h/ 4π

i.e. Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that both the position and momentum cannot be
measured simultaneously with perfect accuracy.

This principal in quantum mechanics is also valid for energy and time, mathematically it can
be represented as,

(△ E). (△ t) ≥ h/ 4π

TIME DEPENDENT SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION(TDSE):

Quantum mechanically, this particle, describing S.H.M. has a wave, or in particular

- a matter wave, associated with it, which is represented by a wave function ψ(x, t). The
wave equation associated with particle moving along +x direction is given by following
equation.

𝜕2ψ 1 𝜕2ψ
= ----------------------------①
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2

Every second order partial derivative has its own solution. The general solution of above
second order partial derivative is given by,
𝑥⁄ )
ψ = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖𝜔(𝑡− 𝑣

where, A is the amplitude of oscillations, ω is angular frequency, t is the time, x is position and
ℎ
v is its velocity. As 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝜈𝜆 and by using 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈, 𝜆 = 𝑃 the above
equation can be modified as,

𝑖
ψ = 𝐴𝑒 − ⁄ħ(𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥) ---------------------------------- ②

Equation ② represents a mathematical representation of an unrestricted particle of total

energy E and momentum P moving along +x direction.

The total energy (E) associated with a moving particle in +x direction is the sum of kinetic and
its potential energy and can be written as

T.E. = E = K.E. + P.E

𝑃2ψ
𝐸ψ = + 𝑉ψ-----------------③
2𝑚

where, V is potential energy of the particle which is a function of x. Differentiating

 equation ② with respect to x,
𝜕ψ 𝑖 𝑖𝑃
= 𝐴𝑒 − ⁄ħ(𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥) .
𝜕𝑥 ħ

Again, differentiating above equation with respect to x,

𝜕 2ψ −𝑖⁄ħ(𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥) 𝑖𝑃 2
= 𝐴𝑒 .( )
𝜕𝑥 2 ħ

𝜕 2ψ 𝑃2 −𝑖⁄ (𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥)
= − 𝐴𝑒 ħ
𝜕𝑥 2 ħ2

Using equation ② above equation can be written as,

𝜕 2ψ 𝑃2 ψ
= −
𝜕𝑥 2 ħ2

𝜕2ψ
𝑃2 ψ = −ħ2 --------------------------④
𝜕𝑥 2

Differentiating equation ② with respect to t,

𝜕ψ 𝑖 −𝑖𝐸
= 𝐴𝑒 − ⁄ħ(𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥) .
𝜕𝑡 ħ

Using equation ② above equation can be written as,

𝜕ψ −𝑖𝐸ψ
=
𝜕𝑡 ħ

ħ 𝜕ψ
𝐸ψ = −𝑖 -------------------------------⑤
𝜕𝑡

Substituting equation ④ and ⑤ in equation ③, Equation ③ becomes,

ħ 𝜕ψ −ħ2 𝜕2 ψ
= + 𝑉ψ --------------------------⑥
−𝑖 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

Equation ⑥ is one dimensional TDSE. The same can be written in three dimensions as
ħ 𝜕ψ −ħ2
= ∇2 ψ + 𝑉ψ --------------------------⑦
−𝑖 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚

𝜕2 ψ 𝜕2ψ 𝜕2ψ
Where, ∇2 ψ = + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 is a Laplacian operator.
𝜕𝑥 2

Thus, the Time Dependent Schrödinger Equation, TDSE, can be derived from the wave
mechanics considering the equations for a particle describing S.H.M. This derivation has its
own importance as it paves the way from classical to quantum mechanics.
TIME INDEPENDENT SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION(TISE):

The Schrodinger time dependent wave equation in one dimension can be written as,

ħ 𝜕ψ −ħ2 𝜕 2 ψ
= + 𝑉ψ
−𝑖 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
𝑖
ψ = 𝐴𝑒 − ⁄ħ(𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥)

𝑖𝐸𝑡⁄ 𝑖𝑃𝑥⁄
ψ = 𝐴𝑒 − ħ 𝑒 ħ

where the space and the time dependence of the complete wave function are contained in
separate factors. Let us assign another wave function 𝜓′ for position dependent term,
𝑖𝐸𝑡⁄
ψ = 𝜓′𝑒 − ħ

𝑖𝑃𝑥⁄
where 𝜓 ′ = 𝐴𝑒 ħ

If we substitute this trial solution into the Schrodinger wave equation, and make use of the
meaning of partial derivatives, we get

ħ 𝜕𝜓′ −𝑖𝐸𝑡⁄ −ħ2 𝜕 2 𝜓′ −𝑖𝐸𝑡⁄ 𝑖𝐸𝑡

𝑒 ħ = 𝑒 ħ + 𝑉𝜓′𝑒 − ⁄ħ
−𝑖 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

𝑖𝐸𝑡⁄
Divide both side with 𝜓′𝑒 − ħ

−𝑖𝐸𝑡⁄ħ
−ħ2 𝜕 2 𝜓′
ħ 𝜕𝑒 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝑉𝜓′
𝑖𝐸𝑡 =
−𝑖𝑒 − ⁄ħ 𝜕𝑡 𝜓′

ħ 𝜕𝜓′ −ħ2 𝜕 2 𝜓′
= + 𝑉𝜓′
−𝑖 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
Since we the function of only x set equal to a function of only t they both must equal to a
constant, say E

−𝑖𝐸𝑡⁄ħ
−ħ2 𝜕 2 𝜓′ ′
ħ 𝜕𝑒 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝑉𝜓
𝑖𝐸𝑡 = = cosntant = E
−𝑖𝑒 − ⁄ħ 𝜕𝑡 𝜓′

−ħ2 𝜕 2 𝜓′
+ 𝑉𝜓′ = E𝜓′
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
If we rearrange the terms, we end up with
 ħ2 𝜕 2 𝜓′
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓′ (𝑥) = 0
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
The above equation is the time independent Schrodinger equation (TISE). The quantity E is
the energy of the particle and is a free parameter in the equation. In other words, there will not
be any restriction on the possible energy values for E. Thus, to solve the wave function for a
particle with some specific value of E that is moving in the presence of a potential V, all we
have to do is to insert this value of E into the equation with the appropriate V, and solve for the
corresponding wave function.

Particle trapped in a one-dimensional infinite potential well:

Consider a single particle of mass m confined to within a region 0 < x < L with potential energy
V = 0 bounded by infinitely high potential barriers, i.e. V = ∞ for x < 0 and x > L. The potential
experienced by the particle is then: ∞
V (x) = 0, 0 < x < L
Meanwhile, in the region 0 < x < L, the potential vanishes, so the time independent Schrodinger
equation becomes:
ħ2 𝜕2 𝜓
+ 𝐸𝜓(𝑥) = 0----------------①
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2𝜓 2𝑚
+ ħ2 𝐸𝜓(𝑥) = 0--------------------②
𝜕𝑥 2
To solve this, we define a quantity k by
2𝑚𝐸
𝑘=√ ------------------------------③
ħ2
So the equation can be written as
𝜕2𝜓
+ 𝑘 2 𝜓(𝑥) = 0------------------------④
𝜕𝑥 2
The above second order differential equation has its general solution and can be written as,

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥) + 𝐵 cos (𝑘𝑥) ---------------------------⑤

For first boundary conditions,
𝜓(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0
Equation ⑤ RHS does not vanish, hence second part of equation ⑤ does not explain the wave
function. (Since, B=0)
 𝜓(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝐿
So the solution is now,
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥)
Now by applying second boundary condition to the above equation,
𝜓(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝐿

𝜓(𝐿) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝐿) = 0
which tells us that either A = 0, in which case 𝜓(𝑥) = 0, which is not a useful solution, or else
sin(kL) = 0, which gives an equation for k:
𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑤𝑒ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … ..
𝑛𝜋
𝑘=
𝐿
From equation ③
2𝑚𝐸 𝑛𝜋
√ 2
=
ħ 𝐿
𝑛2 𝜋 2 ħ2
𝐸 = 2𝑚𝐿2 𝑤𝑒ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … .. ----------⑥
Each permitted energy is called an energy level and n that specifies energy level En is called its
quantum number.
1. A trapped particle cannot have any arbitrary energy, as a free particle can.
2. A trapped particle cannot have zero energy.

𝝍 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙

𝟐𝒎𝑬 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝝍 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏√ 𝟐
𝒙 = A sin
ħ 𝐿

∞
Using the normalization condition, ∫−∞|𝜓𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥 = 1

∞ 𝐿
∫ |𝜓𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ |𝜓𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥
−∞ 0

𝐿 𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫ |𝜓𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
0 0 𝐿
𝐿
𝐴2 𝐿 𝐿
2𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫ |𝜓𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥 = [∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥]
0 2 0 0 𝐿
𝐿
𝐴2 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿
∫ |𝜓𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 − ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ]
0 2 2𝑛𝜋 𝐿 0
𝐿
𝐴2
∫ |𝜓𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐿=1
0 2
 2
𝐴= √
𝐿

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓𝑛 =√𝐿 sin 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … ..
𝐿

Quantum Computing:
Quantum computing is an as-of-yet theoretical computing model that uses a very different form
of data handling to perform calculations. The emergence of quantum computing is based on a
new kind of data unit that could be called non-binary, as it has more than two possible values.
Quantum computing is an as-of-yet theoretical computing model that uses a very different form
of data handling to perform calculations. The emergence of quantum computing is based on a
new kind of data unit that could be called non-binary, as it has more than two possible values.
A traditional computer works on bits of data that are binary, or Boolean, with only two possible
values: 0 or 1. In contrast, a quantum bit, or "qubit," has possible values of 1, 0 or a
superposition of 1 and 0, in the case of an unknown value. According to scientists, qubits are
based on physical atoms and molecular structures. However, many find it helpful to theorize a
qubit as a binary data unit with superposition.
The use of qubits makes the practical quantum computer model quite difficult. Traditional
hardware requires altering to read and use these unknown values. Another idea, known as
entanglement, uses quantum theory to suggest that accurate values cannot be obtained in the
ways that traditional computers read binary bits. It also has been suggested that a quantum
computer is based on a non-deterministic model, where the computer has more than one
possible outcome for any given case or situation. Each of these ideas provides a foundation for
the theory of actual quantum computing, which is still problematic in today’s tech world.
Classical computing relies, at its ultimate level, on principles expressed by Boolean algebra,
operating with a (usually) 7-mode logic gate principle, though it is possible to exist with only
three modes (which are AND, NOT, and COPY). Data must be processed in an exclusive
binary state at any point in time - that is, either 0 (off / false) or 1 (on / true). These values are
binary digits, or bits. The millions of transistors and capacitors at the heart of computers can
only be in one state at any point. While the time that each transistor or capacitor need be
either in 0 or 1 before switching states is now measurable in billionths of a second, there is
still a limit as to how quickly these devices can be made to switch state. As we progress to
smaller and faster circuits, we begin to reach the physical limits of materials and the threshold
for classical laws of physics to apply. Beyond this, the quantum world takes over, which
opens a potential as great as the challenges that are presented.