Unit-1

Short Answers
ANSWERS

1. Explain physical significance of wave function.

Ans: Wave function :

It is the variable quantity that is associated with a moving particle at any position and at any time t and it
relates the probability of finding the particle at that point and at that time.

 It relates the particle and the wave.

 Wave function gives the information about the particle behaviour.
 Individually  does not have any meaning
 ⃓⃓2 = 𝜓 × 𝜓 is real and positive. It represents the probability density
 For a given volume d, the probability of finding the particle is given by
Probability = ∫∫∫ ⃓⃓2 d

Ans: 2. What are matter waves? List out their properties

Ans: De-Broglie concept of matter waves

Louis de-Broglie suggested that an electron (or) any other material particle must exhibit wave like
properties in addition to particle nature. The waves associated with a material particle are called matter
waves.

properties of matterwaves:-

1) Lighter is the Particle, greater is the Wavelength associated with it i.e.

1
λ ∝𝑚

2) Smaller is the Velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it
1
λ ∝𝜈

3) When v = 0 then λ = ∞ , i.e., waves becomes in determine and if v = ∞ then λ = 0

4) The waves are produced whether the particles are charged or uncharged, but electromagnetic waves are
produced only by the motion of charged particles. So, in this case new kind of matter waves are produced,
These waves are called MatterWaves.

5) The velocity of matter Waves always greater than velocity of light.

3. Show that wavelength associated with a moving particle is λ = h/√2meV

Ans. De-Broglie wavelength in terms of Energy

1
We know kinetic energy E = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Multiply by ‘m’ on both sides we get

1
Em = 2 𝑚2 𝑣 2

𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝐸𝑚

P= 𝑚𝑣 = 2𝑚𝐸
𝒉 𝒉
De-Broglie wavelength λ = 𝒑
= 𝟐𝒎𝑬

4. Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

According to Heisenberg it is impossible to measure the position and momentum of a moving particle
simultaneously and accurately.
If two physical variables of a moving particle are considered as measurable quantities
the uncertainties or errors will be exerting in which the product of two uncertainties will be greater
𝑕
than or equal to the order of 4𝜋 where h is plank’s constant.
𝑕
If we consider uncertainties with respect to position and momentum then 𝛥𝑃 × ∆𝑥 ≥ 4𝜋
∆P is the uncertainty or error of momentum of the particle.
∆X is the uncertainty or error of position of the particle.

5. What are the characteristics of black body radiation..

Black body radiation has the following characteristics

1. The radiation contains all the wavelengths.
2. There is a wavelength at which maximum energy is emitted.
3. As temperature increases, the area under the curve increases.
4. The area under the curve represents the total radiation emitted.
5. The wavelength at which peak emission occurs shift towards origin as temperature increases.

6. Derive de-broglie equation of matter waves.

De-Broglie wavelength

From the theory of light considering a photon as a particle, the total energy of the photon is given by E =
mc2

Where m = mass of the particle

C = velocity of light

Considering the photon as wave, the total energy is given by E = hν

Where h = plank’s constant

ν = frequency of radiation

Hence mc2 = hν = hc/λ

λ = h/mc = h/p where p = mc = momentum of photon.

De-Broglie wavelength λ = h/mv

7. Explain Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

The photon’s energy is used in the following two parts

1. A part of its energy is used to free the electron from the atoms and away fromhe metal
surface. This energy is known as photoelectric work function of metal. This is denoted by w0.
2. The other part is used in giving kinetic energy to the electron.
hν = W0+1/2 mv2 This is called Einsein’s photoelectric equation

8. What is wave particle duality?

A wave can be simply defined as spreading out of a disturbance in a medium in all directions
uniformly. It cannot be confined to a part or region, it is not ossible to say that a wave is present
here or there. A wave is characterized by wavelength, frequency, wave velocity, amplitude, phase,
intensity.
It is easy to understand the concept of a particle, since it is a physical quantity and can be
perceived physically. A particle has definite mass and occupies a definite space. When a force is
applied on it, it moves In the direction of force from one point to another. A particle characterized
by mass, velocity, momentum, energy.
The particle nature of radiation can be observed in photoelectric effect and Compton effect.
The wave nature of radiation is seen in interference and diffraction experiments. Hence radiation is
capable of exhibiting dual nature. This is called wave particle duality.

9. What are the fundamental laws of photoelectric effect?

1. The number of electros emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of incident light.
 2. For a given material, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident light so that
photoelectrons can be ejected from a metal surface. If the frequency of the incident light is less than
this frequency no electrons can be emitted from the metal surface however intense the incident
radiation may be. The minimum value of frequency is known as threshold frequency and the
corresponding wavelength is own s threshold wavelength.
3. The maximum velocity or the kinetic energy of photoelectron depends on the frequency of radiation
and not on intensity. The kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases with increase of frequency of
incident light.
4. The rate at which the electrons are emitted from a photo cathode is independent of its temperature.
This shows that photoelectric phenomenon is entirely different from thermionic emission.
5. Electron emission from a photosensitive surface is almost instantaneous and emission continues as
long as the frequency of incident radiation is greater than the threshold requency. The time lag
between incident radiation and emission of electrons is less than 10-8 seconds.
6. For a given metal surface , stopping potential is directly proportional to frequency but independent of
the intensity of incident light.

10. What is Compton effect? Explain.

If a monochromatic beam of high frequency radiation is scattered by a substance, the scattered

radiation contains two components, one having lower frequency or greater wavelength and the
other having the same frequency or wavelength. The radiation of unchanged frequency in the
scattered beam is known as unmodified radiation while the radiation of lower frequency is called
as modified radiation. This phenomenon is known as Compton effect.

Long Answers
1. Derive schrdinger’s time independent equation.

Ans: SCHROEDINGER’S TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION

Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle. Let x, y, z be the coordinates of the particle
and Ψ is the wave displacement for the de-Broglie waves at any time t. The classical differential equation of a
wave motion is given by

𝜕2 Ψ 2
𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕2 Ψ
= 𝑣 + + = 𝑣 2 ∇2 Ψ − − − − 1
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
∇2 being Laplacian operator and v is the wave velocity.
The solution of equation (1) gives Ψ as a periodic displacement in terms of time.

i.e., Ψ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = Ψ0 x, y, z, t e−iωt − − − − − 2
where Ψ0 x, y, z, t is a function of x, y, z and gives the amplitude at the point considered.
Equation (2) can also be expressed as

., Ψ 𝑟, 𝑡 = Ψ0 r e−iωt − − − − − (3)
Differentiating equation (3) with respect to t twice we get
𝜕Ψ
First time differentiation gives 𝜕𝑡
= −𝑖𝜔Ψ0 r e−iωt = −𝑖𝜔Ψ

𝜕2Ψ
Second time differentiation gives = −𝑖𝜔 × −𝑖𝜔 × Ψ0 r e−iωt = 𝑖 2 × Ψ0 r e−iωt
𝜕𝑡 2

= − 𝜔2 Ψ
𝜕2Ψ
Substituting the value of in equation (1), we have
𝜕𝑡 2

𝑣 2 ∇2 Ψ = − 𝜔 2 Ψ
𝜔2
∇2 Ψ + Ψ=0−−−−− 4
𝑣2
𝑣
But 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 = 2𝜋 𝜆

Substituting the value of 𝜔 in equation (4)

4𝜋 2 𝑣 2
∇2 Ψ + Ψ=0
𝑣 2 𝜆2
4𝜋 2
∇2 Ψ + 𝜆2
Ψ = 0 ----------(5)
𝑕
By de-broglie we know that 𝜆 =
𝑚𝑣

Substituting this in equation (5)

2
4𝜋 2 𝑚2 𝑣 2
∇ Ψ+ Ψ = 0 − − − − − −(6)
𝑕2
If E is total energy and V is potential energy of the particle respectively,
Total energy = Kinetic energy + potential energy
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝐸 − 𝑉
2
Multiplying both sides with 2m

𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝑚 𝐸 − 𝑉 − − − − − − 7
Substituting equation (7) in equation (6)
4𝜋 2
∇2 Ψ + × 2𝑚 𝐸 − 𝑉 Ψ = 0
𝑕2
8𝜋 2 𝑚
∇2 Ψ + 𝐸 − 𝑉 Ψ = 0 − − − −(8)
𝑕2
Equation (8) is known as the schrodinger time independent wave equation.
𝑕
Substituting = 2𝜋
in equation (8), the schrodinger wave equation can be written as

2𝑚
∇2 Ψ + 𝐸 − 𝑉 Ψ = 0 − − − −(9)

This equation is known as schrodinger‟s time independent equation.

2. Show that the energies of a particle in a potential box are quantized.

Ans: APPLICATION OF SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION TO A PARTICLE ENCLOSED IN ONE

DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL BOX.

 Consider a particle of mass m moving along x-axis, enclosed in a one dimensional potential box.
 Since the walls are of infinite height, the particle does not penetrate out from the box.
 The potential energy of the particle inside the box is zero.
 The potential energy of the particle outside the box is infinity.

Boundary conditions
𝑉 𝑥 = 0 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿 ---------(1)
𝑉 𝑥 = ∞𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 0 ≥ 𝑥 ≥ 𝐿 --------(1)
Let us consider schroedinger‟s time independent wave equation

𝜕 2 𝜓 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
+ 2 𝜓 = 0 − − − − − −(2)
𝜕𝑥 2

The potential energy of the particle is zero inside the well. V = 0

Substitute V = 0 in equation (2)
 𝜕 2 𝜓 2𝑚𝐸
+ 2 𝜓=0
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕2 𝜓
+ 𝑘2𝜓 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2
2𝑚𝐸
Where 𝑘 2 =

The solution of equation 1 is given as

𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥--------------(4)
where A,B = orbitrary constants

Boundary condition (i) at x = 0 , V = there is no chance of finding the particle.

𝜓 𝑥 = 0
Equation (4) becomes
0 = 𝐴 sin 0 + 𝐵 cos 0
0 = 0 +B(1)
B=0

Boundary condition (ii) at x = L, potential energy V = therefore there is no chance for finding the particle
at the walls of the box.
Equation (3) becomes

0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝐿 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝐿
Since B = 0
0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝐿
Since A≠ 0; sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0
𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋
𝑘=
𝐿

The wave function takes the form

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin
𝐿
ENERGY OF THE PARTICLE
2𝑚𝐸
We know 𝑘 2 =

2𝑚𝐸
= 𝑕2
( )
4𝜋 2
 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
𝑘2 =
𝑕2

𝑛2𝜋2
also 𝑘2 = 𝐿2

8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛2 𝜋 2
= 2
𝑕2 𝐿
Energy of the particle

To evaluate A
Since the particle is inside the box of length L, the probability that the particle is found inside the box is
unity.
𝐿
⃓⃓2 dx = 1
0

𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 dx = 1
0 𝐿
𝐿
2
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 dx = 1
0 𝐿

𝐿
2
1 2nπx
𝐴 1 − cos dx = 1
0 2 L

Since cos 2𝜃 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝐴2 𝐿 2𝜋𝑛𝑥
𝑥− sin =1
2 2𝜋𝑛 𝐿
Applying the limits

𝐴2 𝐿
=1
2

2
𝐴=
𝐿

2 𝜋𝑛𝑥
The normalized wave function 𝜓𝑛 = 𝐿
sin 𝐿

3. What is Compton effect ? Derive the equation for Compton shift of wavelength.
Geometry of compton scattering
 4. Describe the experimental verification of matter waves using Davisson-Germer experiment.

Experimental verification of matter waves - Davisson and Germer experiment

The experimental arrangement is as shown.
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT,
1. Filament F
2. Low tension battery
3. diaphragms D1 and D2
4. Aluminium cylinder A
5. Nickel crystal N
6. Handle H
7. Faraday cylinder F
8. Galvanometer G

WORKING
 Electrons are produced by heating the filament (F) with a L.T battery and are made into a fine
parallel pencil beams on passing through two thin aluminium diaphragms D1 and D2.
 The electrons are then accelerated by passing them through an aluminium cylinder A to which a
high potential is applied.
 These electron beams are allowed to fall on a single crystal of Nickel N. This crystal is capable of
rotating about an axis parallel to the axis of the incident beam by a handle H.
 The electrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms in the crystal as given by the Bragg‟s
diffraction formula

2 d sin θ = nλ
  The scattered electrons in all the directions are collected by a collector called Faraday cylinder.
This Faraday cylinder is connected to a sensitive galvanometer (G) and can be moved along a graduated
circular scale (S), so that it is able to receive the reflected electrons at all angles between 20 0 and 900.
 The collector has two walls C and D isolated from each other. A retarding potential is applied
between the two walls of collector so that only the electron with nearly the incident velocity and not
the secondary slow electrons excited by collision with atoms may enter the collector.
 The deflections of the galvanometer are directly proportional to the intensity of beam entering the
detector. The position of the collector measures the angle Ф at which the maximum scattering of
the electrons takes place. The intensity of scattered electron beam depends upon the scattering
angle Ф and the accelerating potential V.

GRAPH
A graph is plotted between the observed scattering angle Ф and the number of electrons collected.

It was observed that high intensity scattered electron beam always occurred at angle Ф = 500 for a accelerating
voltage of 54 V.
Theory
Let us consider the arrangement of atoms in Ni crystal act like the rulings of a diffraction grating. The planes in
the crystal area inclined at an angle of 250 with respect to the top surface of the crystal.
V = 54 V, Φ= 500. The crystal is producing the Bragg‟s reflection at an angle θ= 90 – Φ/2 = 90-25 =650 where θ
is called the Bragg angle of diffraction
For the first order reflection n=1 and d = a sin 250
= 2.15 10-10 sin 250

= 0.909 10-10m

According to Bragg‟s formula,

2d sin θ = nλ
2 0.909 10-10 sin 650 = 1 λ

λ = 1.65 A0
The theoretical value of de-Broglie wavelength that is accelerated by a potential difference of 54 V is given by
12.26
λ= 54
= 1.67 𝐴0

This is in close agreement with the experimental value.

5. Derive plank’s radiation law of black body radiation.

Plank’s quantum theory

Plank derived the radiation law by using the assumptions
1. A chamber containing black body radiations also contains simple harmonic oscillator of molecular
dimensions which can vibrate with all possible frequencies.
2. The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of its vibration.
3. An oscillator cannot emit energy in a continuous manner. It can emit energy in the multiples of a
small unit called quantum. If an oscillator is vibrating with a frequency 𝛾, it can only radiate in quantas
of magnitude 𝑕𝜈. The oscillators can only radiate in quantas of magnitude 𝑕𝜈. the oscillator can have
only discrete energy values En given by

𝐸𝑛=𝑕𝜈
where n is an integer and h is plank‟s constant.

4. The oscillators can emit or absorb radiation energy in packets of 𝑕𝜈. The exchange of energy
between radiation and matter cannot take place continuously bu are limited to discrete set of values 0,
𝑕𝜈,2𝑕𝜈,3𝑕𝜈 etc

𝐸𝑛=𝑛𝑕𝜈=𝑛𝜀 where 𝜀=𝑕𝜈

Calculation of average energy per oscillator

If N is the total number of plank‟s oscillators and E be their total energy, then the average energy per plank‟s
oscillator 𝜀̅ is given by
𝜀̅=𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ---------(1)
Let there be 𝑁0 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦 0 𝑁1 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦 𝜀 𝑁2 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦
2𝜀
And so on 𝑁𝑟 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝜀
Unit -2
I. Short Answers.

1. An electron donor is a doping atom (impurity) that, when added to a semiconductor, can form
an n-type semiconductor. An electron acceptor is a doping atom (impurity) that, when added to
a semiconductor, can form a p-type semiconductor.Example. Aluminium (P-Type),
phosphorus (N-Type).
2. A Zener diode is a special type of diode designed to reliably allow current to flow "backwards"
when a certain set reverse voltage, known as the Zener voltage, is reached.
Zener diodes are manufactured with a great variety of Zener voltages and some are even variable.
3. Principle of Hall Effect. The principle of Hall Effect states that when a current-carrying
conductor or a semiconductor is introduced to a perpendicular magnetic field, a
voltage can be measured at the right angle to the current path. This effect of obtaining a
measurable voltage is known as the Hall Effect.
4. The probability of occupation of energy levels in valance and conduction band is
represented in terms of Fermi level.
 As the temperature increases, free electrons and holes gets generated which results in shift
of Fermi level accordingly.
In intrinsic semiconductor, the no. of electrons in conduction band and no. of holes in
valance band are equal. The probability of occupation of energy levels in valance and
conduction band are equal.

5. The reverse saturation current is the part of the reverse current in a semiconductor diode
which is caused by the diffusion of minority carriers from the neutral regions to
the depletion region.
6. Drift current is the electric current due to the movement of charge carriers under the impact of an
outer electric field, while diffusion current is the electric current due to the distribution of carriers,
pointing to a change in carrier collection.
7. A P-N Junction Diode is formed by doping one side of a piece of silicon with a P-type dopant
(Boran) and the other side with a N-type dopant (phosphorus). Ge can be used instead of
Silicon. The P-N junction diode is a two-terminal device. This is the basic construction of the P-N
junction diode.

8. Intrinsic semiconductors are solely reliant on temperature while Extrinsic semiconductors

are affected by temperature and the number of contaminants present. Intrinsic
semiconductors are not further classified while N-type and p-type semiconductors are two types
of semiconductors in Extrinsic semiconductors.
9. It is important in determining the electrical and thermal properties of solids. The value of
the Fermi level at absolute zero (−273.15 °C) is called the Fermi energy and is a constant for
each solid. The Fermi level changes as the solid is warmed and as electrons are added to or
withdrawn from the solid.
 10. The base region in a transistor is made very thin so that there is a better conduction of
majority carriers from emitter to collector through base.The base of a transistor is lightly
doped than the emitter and narrowed so that almost all electrons injected from the emitter (in a
npn transistor) diffuse into collector.

II. Long Answers.

1. HallEffectandexpressionforHallcoefficient.
Whenapieceofconductor(metalorsemiconductor)carryingcurrentisplacedinatransverse
(perpendicular) magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a
directionnormal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as
Hall Effect andthegenerated voltageis known as Hall voltage.

 If the material is a p type semiconductor, when electric and magnetic field is applied
atrightangletoeachother,holesexperienceaforceandareaccumulatedononefaceofthematerial.Thi
 scauses apotentialdifferenceand avoltageisdeveloped calledHall voltage.
 If the material is a n type semiconductor, when electric and magnetic field are applied
atright angle to each other, electrons experience a force and are accumulated on one face of
thematerial.Thiscauses apotentialdifferenceandavoltageisdeveloped called Hall voltage.
Consider a n type semiconductor in which electrons have a velocity v due to current flow.
Let Bbe the applied magnetic field. The electrons experience a force of Bev due to the
magnetic field.This causes the electron current tobe deflected causing a negative charge
to accumulate on
onefaceofthesemiconductor.Apotentialdifferenceisestablishedacrossthetwofacesofthemate
rialcausingafield EH.Thisfield gives risetoa forceeEHon electrons in oppositedirection.

At
equilibriume
EH=Bev
EH=Bv
IfJ isthe currentdensity,thenJ =nev wheren isthenumberofchargecarriers.
v=𝐽
𝑛𝑒

EH=Bv
EH=B ( J/ne)
TheHall effectis describedby meansof Hallcoefficient, RH
1
RH=
𝑛𝑒

InntypematerialsinceHallfieldisdevelopedinnegativedirectioncomparedtothefielddevelopedfor
p typematerial, negativesign is used.
1
RH= -
𝑛𝑒
1
For p typematerial,RH=
ne 𝑝𝑒
applications of semiconductors:
DeterminationofthetypeofSemi-conductors:
TheHallcoefficient𝑅𝐻isnegativeforann-typesemiconductorandpositiveforp-
typesemiconductor. Thus the sign of Hall coefficient can be used to determine whether a
given Semi-conductoris n or p-type.

Calculationofcarrierconcentration:
1 1
RH= - or n= (numberofelectrons)
𝑒𝑅𝐻
𝑛𝑒

DeterminationofMobility:
Iftheconductionisduetoonetypeofcarriers,electrons

σ= neμ
μ=σ =σ𝑅𝐻
ne

μ =σ 𝑅𝐻whereμ is themobilityof chargecarriers.

7. Formationofp-njunction.
 A p-n junction is formed when a p- type and n- type semiconductor are joined through
theprocessofcrystalgrowth.Withinthesemiconductortheregionwherethereisatransitionfromp-
typeto n-type is called ajunction.

 In p-type material holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority
chargecarriers.
 In n-type material electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority
chargecarriers.
 Atthejunction,holesdiffusefrompregiontonregionandlikewiseelectronsdiffusefromnregio
n top region. The electrons andholes recombineand disappear at thejunction region.
 Aroundthejunctionregion,freeelectronsandholesrecombineandonlyimmobileionsarepres
ent.Thisregioniscalled spacechargeregion.This regionisalsocalleddepletionregion.
 The fixed ions in the depletion region produce electric field, E. This electric field
opposesthe further diffusion of electrons and holes from n-type region to p-type region. The
 electric fieldgivesrise to apotential called potential barrier.
 Further diffusion of electrons and holes across the potential barrier can only take
placewhenthey overcome thepotential barrier.


 The fixed ions in the depletion region produce electric field, E. This electric field
opposesthe further diffusion of electrons and holes from n-type region to p-type region. The
electric fieldgivesrise to apotential called potential barrier.
 Further diffusion of electrons and holes across the potential barrier can only take
placewhenthey overcome thepotential barrier.

Circuitsymbolofp-njunctiondiode:

Workingofforwardbiasandreversebiasp-njunctiondiode:
p-njunctionunderforwardbias:
 Whenadcvoltage,VFisconnectedtothediodein
suchawaythatthepositiveterminalofthesourceisconnectedtothep-
regionandthenegativeterminaltothen-region,thenthejunctionisforward biased.
 The voltage across the junction decreases by an amount, V O - VF, whereVO is the
barriervoltage.
 The majority charge carriers diffuse across thejunction and hence thewidth of
thedepletionregion decreases.

p-njunctionunderreversebias:
 When a dc voltage, VR, is connected to the diode in such a way that the positive
terminalof the source is connected to the n-region and the negative terminal to the p-region,
then thejunction isreversebiased.
 The voltage across the junction increases and is equal to, V O + VR, where VO is the
barriervoltage.
 Themajoritychargecarriersarepushedawayfromthejunctionandhencethewidthofthedeple
tionregion increases.
 Minoritychargecarriers driftacrossthebarrierandgiveriseto current.

I-Vcharacteristicsofp-njunction diode:
(i) Unbiasedcircuit:
When the junction is not connected to any voltage source, it is said to be
unbiased.
DueDuetothepresenceofbarrierpotentialacrossthejunction,thereisnoflowofchargecarr
iers
andhencethereis nocurrentflow throughthejunction.
(ii) Forwardbiased circuit:
Whenthepositiveterminalofthesource(battery)isconnectedtop-
typeandnegativeterminalto n-type, thejunction is said tobe forward biased.
 Aslongastheforwardbiasvoltageislessthanthevoltageacrossthepotentialbarrier,thecurren
tthrough the junction is negligibly small.
 Thevoltageatwhichthecurrentincreasessharplyiscalledcut-involtageorkneevoltage.
 Astheforwardvoltageincreasesbeyondthepotentialbarriervoltage,thereisanexponentialin
creasein forwardcurrent. Thecurrent isin mA.
 Thekneevoltageforgermanium is 0.3 V and forsilicon it is 0.7 V.

(iii) Reversebiasedcircuit:
Whenthepositiveterminalofthesource(battery)isconnectedton-
typeandnegativeterminaltop-type, thejunction is said to be reversebiased.
 Underreversebiasconditionasmallreversecurrent(inµA)flowsacrossthejunctionduetomin
ority chargecarriers.
 When the applied reverse voltage is high, it breaks the covalent bonds of the crystal and
alarge number of charge carriers are produced. Thus the current rises suddenly in the
reversedirection. The reverse voltage at which the diode breaks down is called breakdown
voltage orZenervoltage.
 Thediode break down may bedueto Avalanchebreak down or dueto Zener break down.
 Avalanchebreakdown occursin diodeswhich are lightlydoped.
 Zenerbreakdown occurs indiodeswhicharethinandheavilydoped.
Application:Ap-njunction canbeused asaswitch orrectifier.
8. Constructionandprincipleofoperation ofbipolarjunctiontransistor:
 Atransistorisasemiconductordeviceconsistingofthreeregionsi.e.theemitter,baseandcolle
ctor. Thethreeregions areseparatedby two p-n junctions.
 Transistorsareoftwo types i.e.npn and pnp.
 Electronsandholesareinvolvedincurrentflowthroughannpnorpnptransistorandhencearec
alled bipolar junction transistor.
 Representationoftransistor

 Thearrowintherepresentationisbetweenthebaseandemitter.Thedirectionofthearrowis
the direction of flow of conventional current (conventional current direction is opposite to
thedirectionofflowofelectrons).
 In npn transistor, the arrow points from base to emitter. In this device electron flow
fromthe emitter into the base and hence the direction of conventional current flow is from
base toemitter.
 In pnp transistor, the arrow points from emitter to base. In this device electron flow
fromthe base into the emitter and hence the direction of conventional current flow is from
emitter tobase.
 In most transistors, emitter is heavily doped. Its job is to emit or inject electrons into
thebase. These bases are lightly doped and very thin, it passes most of the emitter-injected
electronson to the collector. The doping level of collector is intermediate between the heavy
doping ofemitterand the light doping of the base.

 The collector is so named because it collects electrons from base. The collector is
thelargestofthethreeregions;itmustdissipatemoreheatthanthe
 emitterorbase.Thetransistorhastwo junctions. One between emitter and the base and other
between the base and the collector.Because of this the transistor is similar to two diodes, one
emitter diode and other collector basediode.

 Biasingatransistor:
Thetwo junctionsof thetransistor canbebiasedin fourdifferent ways
1. Boththejunctionareforwardbiasedcausinga
largecurrenttoflowacrossthejunctions.Thenthetransistor is said to beoperating inthesaturation
region.
2. Boththejunctionarereversebiasedcausingasmallcurrenttoflowacrossthejunctions.Thenthetran
sistor is said to beoperating in thecut-offregion.
3. EBjunctionisreversebiasedandCBjunctionisforwardbiased.Thetransistorissaidtobeoperatingin
an invertedmode.
4. EBjunctionisforwardbiasedandCBjunctionisreversebiased.Thetransistorissaidtobeoperatingin
activeregion or normalmode.

 Circuitconfiguration:
InnormalmodewhenEBjunctionisforwardbiasedandCBjunctionisreversebiased,thethreeco
nfigurationsforpnpand npn transistor areshown

 Commonemitterconfigurationofpnpandnpn transistor

Commonbaseconfigurationof pnpand npntransistor

Commoncollectorconfigurationofpnpandnpn
transistor

Workingofnpntransistor:
The circuit diagram of the npn transistor is shown in the figure below. The forward
biased isapplied across the emitter-base junction, and the reversed biased is applied
across the collector-base junction. The forward biased voltage VEB is small as compared
to the reverse bias voltageVCB.

Theemitterofthenpntransistorisheavilydoped.Whenforwardbiasisappliedacrosstheemitter,t
he majority charge carriers (electrons) move towards the base. This causes the emitter
current IE.Theelectrons enterinto thep-type material and combinewith theholes.
The base of the npn transistor is lightly doped. Due to which only a few electrons
combine withholes in the base and remaining constitutes the base current IB. This base
current enters into thecollectorregion.Thereversedbiaspotentialofthecollectorregion
causeshighattractiveforceonthe electrons reaching collector junction. Thus the electrons
are attracted or collected at
thecollector.Largeamountofheatisproducedinthecollectorandhencetodissipateheatthecollec
torregionis madelarge.
A majority of electrons emitted by the emitter flow into the collector and cause a large
reversecurrentIC.
Theratioofnumberofelectronsarrivingatthecollectortothenumberofelectronsemittedbythee
mitteriscalled thebasetransportationfactor,denotedby'β'.Typicallyitis around0.995.
Thewholeoftheemittercurrentisenteredintothebase.Thus,wecansaythattheemittercurrentist
hesum of thecollector orthe basecurrent.
 IE=IB+IC

Workingofpnptransistor:
The circuit diagram of the pnp transistor is shown in the figure below. The forward
biased isapplied across the emitter-base junction, and the reversed biased is applied
across the collector-basejunction.
The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the base. This
constitutestheemittercurrentIE.Astheseholescrossinton-
typebase,theytendtocombinewiththe
electrons. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few holes (less than
5%)combine with the electrons. The remainder (more than 95%) cross into the collector
region toconstitute collector current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter current
flows in the collectorcircuit. It may be noted that current conduction within pnp transistor
is by holes. However, in theexternalconnecting wires, the current is still byelectrons.

9. Expressionforcarrierconcentrationin n-typeextrinsicsemiconductor:
 When pentavalent impurities like P, As, Sb is added to the intrinsic semi-
conductors,resultantsemiconductor is called n-type semi-conductor.
 Theconcentrationoffreeelectronsis morewhencomparedtoconcentrationofholes.
Expressionforcarriers’concentrationinn-typesemiconductors:
 Inthis type ofsemiconductor,there will bedonorlevels formedat anenergy Ed.
 𝑁𝑑Representsnumberof impurityatoms per unitvolumeof semi conductor.
 Atlowtemperaturealldonorlevels
arefilledwithelectrons,withincreaseoftemperature,more and more donor atoms get ionized and
the density of electrons in the conduction bandincreases.
 Densityofelectrons intheconductionbandis givenby
2𝜋𝑚∗ᵛKT 𝐸𝑓−𝐸𝑐
𝑒 3/2
n=2( ) exp( )----------
𝑕² 𝐾𝑇

 TheFermilevel(EF) liesin betweenEd&Ec

 Thedensityof emptydonor levelsis givenby
𝐸𝑑−𝐸𝑓
Nd[1-F(Ed)]≈Ndexp( )
𝐾𝑇

 Atlowtemperature,therearenoexcitationsoftheelectronsfromdonorleveltotheconduction
band.
 Hence,densityofdonors
∗
andtheelectrondensityinconductionbandshouldbesame
2𝜋𝑚 KT 𝐸𝑓−𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑑−𝐸𝑓
3/2
i.e.2( 𝑒 ) exp( )=Ndexp( )
𝑕² 𝐾𝑇
𝐾𝑇

 Hencethedensityoftheelectronsintheconductionbandisproportionaltothesquarerootofth
edonorconcentrationatlowtemperature.Ashighertemperatureintrinsicbehaviorpredominatesan
d donorconcentration becomes insignificant.
 As temperature increases Fermi level also increases since more donor atoms are
ionized.Ataparticulartemperatureallthedonoratomsareionized.Furtherincreaseintemperaturere
sultsin generation of electron – hole pairs due to breaking of covalent bonds. The material
tends tobehavein intrinsicmanner.
 TheHallEffectis describedbymeansof theHallcoefficient𝑅H
1
𝑅H=
𝑛𝑒

1. The semiconductor is divided into two types. One is Intrinsic

Semiconductor and other is an Extrinsic semiconductor. The pure form of the
semiconductor is known as the intrinsic semiconductor and the semiconductor in
which intentionally impurities is added for making it conductive is known as the
extrinsic semiconductor.
The conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor becomes zero at room
temperature while the extrinsic semiconductor is very less conductive at room
temperature. The detailed explanation of the two types of the semiconductor is
given below.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
An extremely pure semiconductor is called Intrinsic Semiconductor. On the basis of
the energy band phenomenon, an intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero temperature
is shown below:

Its valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty.
When the temperature is raised and some heat energy is supplied to it, some of the
valence electrons are lifted to conduction band leaving behind holes in the valence
band as shown below:
The electrons reaching at the conduction band move randomly. The holes created in
the crystal also free to move anywhere. This behaviour of the semiconductor shows
that they have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

This means that with the increase in temperature, the resistivity of the material
decreases and the conductivity increases.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor to which an impurity at a controlled rate is added to make it
conductive is known as an extrinsic semiconductor.

An intrinsic semiconductor is capable to conduct a little current even at room

temperature, but it is not useful for the preparation of various electronic devices. Thus,
to make it conducive a small amount of suitable impurity is added to the material.

Doping

The process by which an impurity is added to a semiconductor is known as Doping.

The amount and type of impurity which is to be added to the material have to be
closely controlled during the preparation of extrinsic semiconductor.

Generally, one impurity atom is added to 108 atoms of a semiconductor.

The purpose of adding impurity in the semiconductor crystal is to increase the number
of free electrons or holes to make it conductive. If a Pentavalent impurity, having five
valence electrons is added to a pure semiconductor a large number of free electrons
will exist.

If a trivalent impurity having three valence electrons is added, a large number of holes
will exist in the semiconductor.
Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semiconductor may be
classified as n type semiconductor and p type semiconductor.

Unit-3

Short Answers
1. Demonstrate the working of solar cell
Working Principle of Solar Cell

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction, through very thin
p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction to create
a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the
junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction. Once, the newly
created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the junction because of barrier
potential of the junction. Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further
cross the junction because of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons
becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in
another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A
voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the junction, there
will be a tiny current flowing through it.

2. What is meant by photoconductivity

A photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is a specialized semiconductor diode that converts visible light into
direct current (DC). Some PV cells can also convert infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV) radiation into
DC electricity.

Write Applications of PIN photodiode. (Dec 2018)

High Voltage Rectifier – It is used as a high voltage rectifier. The diode has a large intrinsic region
between the N and P-region which can tolerate the high reverse voltage. Photo-detector – The PIN
diode is used for converting the light energy into the electrical energy. The diode has large depletion
region which improves their performance by increasing the volume of light conversion. The PIN diode
is most suitable for low voltage applications.

3.What is the basic principle of LED? (May 2019)

Working of Light Emitting Diode (LED) Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in forward bias condition. When
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, the free electrons from n-side and the holes from p-side are
pushed towards the junction. When free electrons reach the junction or depletion region, some of the free
electrons recombine with the holes in the positive ions. We know that positive ions have less number of
electrons than protons. Therefore, they are ready to accept electrons. Thus, free electrons recombine with
holes in the depletion region. In the similar way, holes from p-side recombin

4 What are direct and indirect band gap semiconductors? (May 2019)

DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTORS

Direct band gap semiconductors Indirect band gap semiconductors

.1 As shown in the band diagram, the minimum energy of conduction band and maximum energy of valence
band are having the same value of wave vector.

The minimum energy of conduction band and maximum energy of valence band are having the different
values of wave vector.

2 Here an electron from the conduction band can recombine with a hole in the valence band directly emitting
a light photon of eneryhΥ Here an electron from the conduction band can recombine with a hole in the
valence band indirectly through traps.

There is no emission of light photon. But there is emission of phonon leading to the rise of temperature of
the material.

3 Life time of charge carriers is very less.

Life time of charge carriers is more

4 Due to emission of light photon during recombination of charge carriers, these are used to fabricate LEDs
and laser diodes. Due to longer life time of charge carriers, these are used to amplify the signals as in the case
of diodes and transistors.

5. These are mostly from the compound semiconductors. These are mostly from the elemental
semiconductors

6. Examples In P, Ga As

Examples Si, G

5.Define Radiative recombination mechanism in semiconductors

Recombination mechanisms can in general be classified into two groups, radiative and
nonradiative. Radiative recombination occurs when an electron in the conduction
band recombines with a hole in the valence band and the excess energy is emitted in
the form of a photon

6.Write a detailed note on Avalanche photodiode.

The operation of avalanche photodiode is similar to the PN junction and PIN photodiode except that a high
reverse bias voltage is applied in case of avalanche photodiode to achieve avalanche multiplication. Applying
high reverse bias voltage to the avalanche photodiode will not directly increase the generation of charge
carriers. However, it provides energy to the electron-hole pairs generated by the incident light. When light
energy is applied to the avalanche photodiode, electron-hole pairs are generated in the depletion. The
generated electron-hole pairs experience a force due to the depletion region electric field and external
electric field. In avalanche photodiode, a very high reverse bias voltage supply large amount of energy to the
minority carriers (electron-hole pairs). The minority carriers which gains large amount of energy are
accelerated to greater velocities.

7. Compare the materials used to prepare LED and Semiconductor LASER

Light-emitting devices use voltage and current to produce electromagnetic radiation (i.e., light). Such light-
emitting devices are commonly used for purposes of illumination or as indicator lights

Laser Diodes A laser diode is a semiconductor laser device that is very similar, in both form and operation, to
a light-emitting diode (LED). More detailed information about laser diodes can be found here

8.Why reverse saturation is current is independent of reverse bias?

Since there's so few carriers being generated due to thermal interactions generally, your reverse
current is very little and isn't at all dependent upon the reverse voltage until you get to to the zener
voltage which allows tunneling to occur or until you get to the avalanche voltage where the e-field is
adding so much
9.Write the applications of LED

1. The brightness of light emitted by LED is depends on the current flowing through the LED. Hence, the
brightness of LED can be easily controlled by varying the current. This makes possible to operate LED displays
under different ambient lighting conditions. 2. Light emitting diodes consume low energy. 3. LEDs are very
cheap and readily available. 4. LEDs are light in weight. 5. Smaller size. 6. LEDs have longer lifetime. 7. LEDs
operates very fast. They can be turned on and off in very less time. 8. LEDs do not contain toxic material like
mercury which is used in fluorescent lamps. 9. LEDs can emit different colors of ligh

10.What are the Advantages & dis advantages of SOLAR Cell

Advantages of Solar Cell

1. No pollution associated with it. 2. It must last for a long time. 3. No maintenance cost.

Disadvantages of Solar Cell

1. It has high cost of installation. 2. It has low efficiency. 3. During cloudy day, the energy cannot be
produced and also at night we will not get solar energy.

Long Answers.
1.What is an LED? Explain the construction and working of LED.

Lightemitting diode(LED)symbol

The symbol of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that it contains
arrowspointingawayfrom thediode indicatingthat lightis beingemittedbythediode.
LEDs are available in different colors. The most common colors of LEDs are orange,
yellow,greenandred.

The schematic symbol of LED does not represent the color of light. The schematic symbol
issameforallcolorsofLEDs.Hence,itisnotpossibletoidentifythecolorofLEDbyseeingits symbol.

LEDconstruction

One of the methods used to construct LED is to deposit three semiconductor layers on
thesubstrate.Thethreesemiconductorlayersdepositedonthesubstratearen-
typesemiconductor, p-type semiconductor and active region. Active region is present in
betweenthen-typeand p-type semiconductor layers.

When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type semiconductor and holes from p-
typesemiconductor arepushed towardsthe activeregion.
When free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side recombine with the opposite
chargecarriers (free electrons with holes or holes with free electrons) in active region, an
invisible orvisiblelight is emitted.

In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region. Therefore, most of the light
isemittedbytheactiveregion.Theactiveregion is alsocalled asdepletionregion.

BiasingofLED

The safe forward voltage ratings of most LEDs is from 1V to 3 V and forward current ratingsis
from200 mA to 100 mA.

If the voltage applied to LED is in between 1V to 3V, LED works perfectly because thecurrent
flow for the applied voltage is in the operating range. However, if the voltage appliedto LED
is increased to a value greater than 3 volts. The depletion region in the LED breaksdown and
the electric current suddenly rises. This sudden rise in current may destroy thedevice.

To avoid this we need to place a resistor (Rs) in series with the LED. The resistor (Rs )
mustbeplaced in betweenvoltagesource(Vs)andLED.

The resistor placed between LED and voltage source is called current limiting resistor.
Thisresistor restricts extra current which may destroy the LED. Thus, current limiting
resistorprotectsLEDfrom damage.

Thecurrentflowingthroughthe LEDismathematicallywrittenas

Where,
 IF=Forwardcurrent

VS = Source voltage or supply

voltageVD=VoltagedropacrossLED

RS=Resistororcurrentlimitingresistor

Voltage drop is the amount of voltage wasted to overcome the depletion region barrier
(whichleadsto electriccurrent flow).

ThevoltagedropofLED is 2to 3Vwhereassiliconorgermaniumdiode is0.3 or0.7 V.

Therefore,tooperateLEDdio weneedtoapplygreatervoltagethansiliconorgermanium
des.
Lightemittingdiodesconsumemoreenergythansiliconorgermaniumdiodestooperate.
2.What are the out put characteristics of LED &advantages &disadvantages of LED
Outputcharacteristics ofLED

The amount of output light emitted by the LED is directly proportional to the amount
offorwardcurrentflowingthroughtheLED. Moretheforwardcurrent,the greater
istheemittedoutput light. Thegraphofforward currentvsoutputlight isshownin thefigure.
An LED is a directional light source, with the maximum emitted power in the
directionperpendicular to the emitting surface. The typical radiation pattern shows that
most of theenergy is emitted within 20° of the direction of maximum light. Some packages
for LEDsincludeplasticlensesto spreadthelightforagreaterangleofvisibility.

visibleLEDsandinvisibleLEDs

LEDsaremainlyclassifiedintotwotypes:visibleLEDsandinvisibleLEDs.

VisibleLED is a type of LED that emits visible light. These LEDs are mainly used
fordisplayorillumination whereLEDsareused individuallywithoutphotosensors.

Invisible LED is a type of LED that emits invisible light (infrared light). These LEDs
aremainlyused with photosensors suchas photodiodes.

WhatdeterminesthecolorofanLED?

ThematerialusedforconstructingLEDdeterminesitscolor.Inotherwords,thewavelengthorcolor
oftheemittedlight depends ontheforbiddengap orenergygapof thematerial.

Different materials emit different colors of

light.Gallium arsenide LEDs emit red and infrared

light.Gallium nitrideLEDsemitbrightbluelight.

YttriumaluminiumgarnetLEDsemitwhitelight.

Gallium phosphide LEDs emit red, yellow and green

light.Aluminium gallium nitrideLEDsemitultravioletlight.

Aluminumgalliumphosphide LEDsemit greenlight.

AdvantagesofLED

1. The brightness of light emitted by LED is depends on the current flowing through
theLED. Hence, the brightness of LED can be easily controlled by varying the current.
Thismakespossible tooperateLEDdisplays underdifferentambientlightingconditions.

2. Lightemittingdiodesconsumelowenergy.

3. LEDs areverycheapandreadilyavailable.

4. LEDsarelightinweight.

5. Smallersize.

6. LEDshavelongerlifetime.

7. LEDsoperatesveryfast.Theycanbeturned onandoffin verylesstime.

8. LEDsdonotcontaintoxicmateriallikemercurywhichisusedin fluorescentlamps.

9. LEDscanemit differentcolorsoflight.

Disadvantagesof LED

1. LEDsneedmorepowertooperate thannormalp-njunctiondiodes.

2. LuminousefficiencyofLEDsislow.

Applicationsof LED

Thevariousapplications ofLEDsareasfollows

1. Burglaralarmssystems

2. Calculators

3. Picturephones

4. Trafficsignals

5. Digitalcomputers

6. Multimeters

7. Microprocessors

8. Digitalwatches

9. Automotiveheatlamps

10. Cameraflashes
11. Aviationlighting

3.Explain with neat diagram, the construction and working of solar cell.

solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical devicethat
converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell
isbasically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a
devicewhose electrical characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when
exposedto light.

Individualsolarcellscanbecombinedtoformmodulescommonlyknownassolarpanels.Thecomm
onsinglejunctionsiliconsolarcellcanproduceamaximumopen-
circuitvoltageofapproximately0.5 to 0.6 volts.

ConstructionofSolarCell

A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is little bit different
fromconventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin layer of p-type semiconductor is grown on
arelatively thicker n-type semiconductor. We then apply a few finer electrodes on thetop
ofthep-typesemiconductorlayer.

These electrodes do not obstruct light to reach the thin p-type layer. Just below the p-
typelayer there is a p-n junction. We also provide a current collecting electrode at the
bottom ofthe n-type layer. We encapsulate the entire assembly by thin glass to protect the
solar cellfromanymechanical shock.
 WorkingPrincipleofSolarCell

When lightreachesthep-njunction,thelight photonscan easily enter inthe junction,through

very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficientenergy to
the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks thethermal
equilibrium condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region
canquicklycome to the n-typeside ofthe junction.

Similarly,theholesinthedepletioncanquicklycometothep-typesideofthejunction.Once, the
newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross
thejunctionbecauseofbarrierpotential ofthejunction.

Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross
thejunction because of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of
electronsbecomeshigherinoneside,i.e.n-
typesideofthejunctionandconcentrationofholesbecomes more in another side, i.e. the p-
type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behavelike a small battery cell. A voltage is set
up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect asmallloadacrossthejunction,
therewillbeatinycurrent flowingthroughit.
4.Explain the V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell

V-ICharacteristicsofa PhotovoltaicCell

The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV
celloperating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product
ofcurrent and voltage ( I x V ).If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all
voltagesfrom short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for
a givenradiationlevel.

Diagramforthecircuitre withsolarcell,voltmeter,ammeter,andvariable
sistor.
 VIcharacteristiccurveforasolarcell

Short-CircuitCurrent
The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage across the
solarcell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is short circuited). Usually written as ISC, the short-

circuitcurrentis shownon theIVcurvebelow.

IVcurveofasolarcell showingtheopen-circuitvoltage.
The short-circuitcurrentisdue to the generationandcollection of light-generated carriers.For
an ideal solar cell at most moderate resistive loss mechanisms, the short-circuit currentand
the light-generated current are identical. Therefore, the short-circuit current is the
largestcurrentwhich maybedrawn from the solarcell.
Open-CircuitVoltage
The open-circuit voltage, VOC, is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell, and
thisoccurs at zero current. The open-circuit voltage corresponds to the amount of forward
bias onthe solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell junction with the light-generated

current. Theopen-circuit voltageisshownon the IV curvebelow.

IVcurveofasolarcell showingtheopen-circuitvoltage.

FillFactor

The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum current and
voltagerespectively from a solar cell. However, at both of these operating points, the power
from thesolar cell is zero. The "fill factor", more commonly known by its abbreviation "FF", is
aparameter which, in conjunction with VocandIsc, determines the maximum power from
asolar cell. The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to
theproductof VocandIscsothat:
Graphically,the FFisa measureof the"squareness"ofthesolarcellandialso s
theareaofthelargestrectanglewhich willfitintheIVcurve. TheFFis illustratedbelow.

Graphofcelloutputcurrent(redline)andpower(blueline)asafunctionofvoltage.Also shownarethecells
hort-circuitcurrent(Isc)andopen-circuitvoltage(VO)points,aswellas C

themaximumpowerpoint(c V mp,Imp).Clickonthegraphtoseehowthecurvechangesfora
ell withlow FF.

SolarCellEfficiency

The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter tocompare the performance of
onesolar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar
cell toinput energy from the sun. In addition to reflecting the performance of the solar cell
itself, theefficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the
temperatureof the solar cell. Therefore, conditions under which efficiency is measured must
be carefullycontrolledinorder tocompare the performanceof one device toanother.
Terrestrial
solarcellsaremeasuredunderAM1.5conditionsandatatemperatureof25°C.Solarcellsintended
for space use are measured under AM0 conditions. Recent top efficiency solar cellresultsare
given in the pageSolarCell Efficiency Results.

The efficiency ofa solar cellis determinedasthe fractionofincidentpower whichisconvertedto

electricityand isdefined as:
Where:

Voc is the open-circuit

voltage;Iscistheshort-circuit

current;

FF is the fill factor

andηis theefficiency.

MaterialsUsedinSolarCell

The
materialswhichareusedforthispurposemusthavebandgapcloseto1.5ev.Commonlyusedmateri
als are-

1. Silicon.
2. GaAs.
3. CdTe.
4. CuInSe2

CriteriaforMaterialstobeUsedinSolarCell

1. Must havebandgapfrom 1ev to1.8ev.

2. Itmust havehighopticalabsorption.
3. Itmusthavehighelectricalconductivity.
4. Therawmaterialmustbeavailableinabundanceandthecostofthematerialmustbelow.
AdvantagesofSolarCell

1. Nopollutionassociatedwithit.
2. Itmust lastforalongtime.
3. Nomaintenancecost.
DisadvantagesofSolarCell

1. Ithashighcostofinstallation.
2. Ithaslowefficiency.
3. Duringcloudyday,theenergycannotbeproducedandalsoatnightwewillnotgetsolarener
gy.
PINDiode
1. Itmaybeusedtochargebatteries.
2. Usedinlightmeters.
3. Itis usedtopowercalculatorsandwristwatches.
4. Itcanbeusedinspacecrafttoprovideelectricalenergy.
5.Explain The PIN diode
SymbolofPINDiode

The symbolic representation of the PIN diode is shown in the figure below. The anode
andcathode are the two terminal of the PIN diode. The anode is the positive terminal
and cathoderepresenttheirnegativeterminals.
PINDiodeStructure

ThediodeconsiststheP-regionandN-
regionwhichisseparatedbytheintrinsicsemiconductor material. In P-region the holes
are the majority charge carriers while in n-region the electrons are the majority
charge carriers. The intrinsic region has no free chargecarriers. It acts as an insulator
between n and the p-type region. The i-region has the highresistancewhich obstructs
theflowof electronstopass through it.

Workingof PINDiode

The working of the PIN diode is similar to the ordinary diode. When the diode is
unbiased,theirchargecarrierwilldiffuse.Theworddiffusionmeansthechargecarriersofthede
pletion regiontry tomove to their region.The process of diffusionoccurscontinue
untilthecharges becomeequilibrium in thedepletion region.

Let the N and I-layer make the depletion region. The diffusion of the holes and
electronsacross the region generates the depletion layer across the NI-region. The
thin depletion layerinduces across n-region, and thick depletion region of opposite
polarity induces across the I-region.
 ForwardBiasedPINDiode

When the diode is kept forward biased, the charges are continuously injected into
the I-regionfrom the P and N-region. This reduces the forward resistance of the
diode, and it behaves likeavariableresistance.
The charge carrier which enters from P and N-region into the i-region are not
immediatelycombined into the intrinsic region. The finite quantity of charge stored in
the intrinsic regiondecreasestheirresistivity.
Consider the Q be the quantity of charge storedin the depletion region.The τ be the
timeused for the recombination of the charges. The quantity of the charges stored in
the intrinsicregion depends on their recombination time. The forward current starts
flowing into the Iregion.

Where,IF–

forwardcurrentτ-

recombination time

The resistance (Rs) of the current under forwarding biased is inversely proportional to
thechargeQstored intheintrinsicregion.

Where, w – width

regionμN–

electronmobilityμ0–

hole mobility

Fromequation(1)and (2),weget
The above equation shows that the resistance of the intrinsic region depends on the
width oftheregion.
 ReversedBiasedPINDiode

When the reverse voltage is applied across the diode, the width of the depletion
regionincreases. The thickness of the region increases until the entire mobile charge
carrier of the I-region swept away from it. The reverse voltage requires for removing
the complete chargecarrierfrom theI-regionisknownas thesweptvoltage.
Inreversebias,thediodebehaveslikeacapacitor.ThePandNregionactsasthepositiveand
negative platesof the capacitor,and the intrinsic region is the insulator between
theplates.

Where,A–junction diode

w–intrinsicregionthickness

ApplicationsofPINDiode

High Voltage Rectifier – It is used as a high voltage rectifier. The diode has a large
intrinsicregionbetweenthe Nand P-region whichcan tolerate thehighreversevoltage.

Photo-detector – The PIN diode is used for converting the light energy into the
electricalenergy. The diode has large depletion region which improves their performance
by increasingthevolumeof light conversion.

ThePINdiodeis mostsuitable forlowvoltageapplications.

6.Explain The Photo Diode & APD

PhotoDiode

• A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin semiconductor device that consumes

lightenergy to generate electric current. It is also sometimes referred as photo-
detector,photo-sensor,or lightdetector.

• Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition. Reverse

biasmeans that the p-side of the photodiode is connected to the negative terminal
of thebatteryand n-side isconnectedto the positive terminal ofthebattery.

• Photodiode is very sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on the

photodiodeit easily converts light into electric current. Solar cell is also known as
 large areaphotodiode because it converts solar energy or light energy into electric
energy.However,solarcellworks onlyat brightlight.

• Thevariation incurrentisafunctionoftheincident light.

• Useofthestimulatedabsorptionoflightbythesemiconductormaterialforthegeneration
ofelectron-hole pairs.

• Theenergyoftheabsorbedphotonstotransfertheelectronsfromthegroundtotheexcited
statecontributes tothe variation incircuitcurrent.

• Theenergyof theabsorbed photon mustat leastbeequal totheband-

gapofthematerialforthematerialto respond to the incomingphotons.

ModesofOperation

• The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely

Photovoltaicmode,Photoconductivemode and avalanchediodemode

• Photovoltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero bias mode, in which a
voltageis produced by the lightened photodiode. It gives a very small dynamic
range & non-linearnecessityof thevoltageformed.

• Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is

moreusually reverse biased. The reverse voltage application will increase the
depletionlayer’s width, which in turn decreases the response time & the junction
capacitance.Thismode is too fastand displays electronicnoise

• Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias

condition,whichpermits multiplicationofanavalanchebreakdowntoeachphoto-
produced
 electron-hole pair. This outcome in an internal gain in the photodiode, which
slowlyincreasesthe deviceresponse.

AvalanchePhotoDiode(APD)

The operation of avalanche photodiode is similar to the PN junction and PIN

photodiodeexcept that a high reverse bias voltage is applied in case of avalanche
photodiode to achieveavalanchemultiplication.

Applying high reverse bias voltage to the avalanche photodiode will not directly increase
thegenerationofchargecarriers.However,itprovidesenergytotheelectron-
holepairsgeneratedbytheincidentlight.

When light energy isapplied to the avalanche photodiode, electron-holepairs are

generatedin the depletion. The generated electron-hole pairs experience a force due to the
depletionregionelectricfield andexternalelectricfield.

In avalanche photodiode, a very high reverse bias voltage supply large amount of energy
tothe minority carriers (electron-hole pairs). The minority carriers which gains large amount
ofenergyareaccelerated togreater velocities.

When the free electronsmoving at high speed collides with the atom, they knock off
morefree electrons. The newly generated free electrons are again accelerated and collide
with otheratoms. Because of this continuous collision with atoms, a large number of
minority carriersare generated. Thus, avalanche photodiodes generates more number of
chargecarriers thanPNand PIN photodiodes.

Avalanchephotodiodesareusedintheapplicationswherehighgainis animportantfactor.

All detectors require a certain minimum current to operate reliably. The current
requirementtranslatesintoaminimum powerrequirement through

DetectorswithalargeresponsivityRarepreferredsincetheyrequirelessopticalpower.

The responsivity of p–i–n photodiodes is limited while Avalanche photodiode (APDs)

canhavemuch largervaluesofR.
WorkingofAPD

APD is similar to PIN diode the exception is the addition of high intensity electric fieldregion.

Inthisregionprimaryelectronholepairsaregeneratedbytheincidentphotonswhichareable to
absorb enough kinetic energy from strong electric field to collide with the atomspresentin
this region, thusgeneratingmore electron holepairs.

Thephysicalphenomenon behindtheinternalcurrentgainisknownastheimpact
ionization.

This impact ionization leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse bias. It

requiresvery high reverse bias voltage in order that the new carriers created by impact
ionization canthemselvesproduceadditionalcarriersbysamemechanism.

This process of generating more than one electron hole pair from incident photon
throughionizationprocess isreferredtoastheavalancheeffect.

Thustheavalanchemultiplicationresultsinamplificationofphotodiodecurrent.
Multiplication factor: Multiplication factor M is a measure of internal gain provided by
APD.Itisdefinedastheratiooftotalmultipliedoutput currenttotheprimaryunmultipliedcurrent.

Where I the Total multiplied output

currentIpistheprimaryunmultipliedcurrent

Multiplication depends on physical and operational characteristics of photo detector

device.Operational characteristics include the width of avalanche region, the strength of
electric fieldandtypeof semiconductor material employed.

Advantagesofavalanchephotodiode

• Highsensitivity
• Largergain
Disadvantagesof avalanchephotodiode

• Generateshighlevelofnoise thanaPNphotodiode
 S.No PINDiode AvalanchePhotoDiode
1 PIN does nothave highintensity APD
electricfieldregion. hashighintensityelectricfieldregion.
2 Photocurrent(Ip)generatedisless Photocurrent(Ip)generatedismore
comparedto APD comparedto PIN,

q=electroncharge,Nθ= carriernumber q = electron charge,Nθ=

carriernumber,M=multiplication
factor
3 ResponsivityofPINis limited. Responsivity
ofAPDcanhavemuchlargervalues.
4 Theyexhibit lowernoiselevels. Theyexhibithighernoiselevelsascomp
ared to PIN due to
impact
ionization and
photocurrentmultipli
cation.
5 ResponsetimeofPINishalfthatofAPD. ResponsetimeofAPDisalmostdoub
lethat ofPIN.

Unit-4
UNIT- 4
LASER & FIBER OPTICS
I. SHORT ANSWERS

1.What is LASER and write the principle of Laser action?

Laser: Laser means Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Principleoflaser/lasingaction:

 LaserProductionPrinciple:
 Twocoherentphotonsproducedinthestimulatedemission,interactswithothertwoexcitedat
oms,resulting in four coherent photons.
  Thus,coherentphotonsaremultipliedinalasingmedium.Thecontinuoussuccessiveemission
ofphotons results forthe production oflaser beam.

2.Write the differences between Ordinary light and LASER light.

Ans: Ordinary light : 1. It spreads into different directions 2. Its less directionality
beam .
3. Its intensity/ brightness is very less 4. It is Incoherent beam
5. It is called Polychromatic source .6 Ex: Sun light, Mercury Lamp.
LASER light : 1.It spreads into single direction. 2. Its high directionality beam .
3. Its intensity/ brightness is very more 4. It is coherent beam
5.It is called Monochromatic source .6 .Ex: He-Ne gas , Ruby laser
3. Define Pumping and Population inversion.
Ans:Generally,numberofatomsinthegroundstateisgreaterthanthenumberofatomsinhigherenerg
ystates
Pumpingprocessisdefinedas:“Theprocess whichexcitestheatomsfromgroundstateto excitedstate
to achievepopulation inversion”.
populationinversion.
 Thisprocessisrequiredtoachievepopulationinversion numberofatomsinthehigher energy
states isgreaterthanthenumberofatomslower energystates (N2>N1)
4.Discuss about coherence in LASER.

Coherence: If any wave appears as pure sine wave for longtime and infinite space, then it issaidto
beperfectly coherent. Coherent sources Which have same wavelength , same amplitude and they
have constant phase difference that phenomena is known as Coherence .

Practically, no wave is perfectly coherent including lasers. But compared to other light
sources,lasershavehighdegreeofcoherencebecausealltheenergyisconcentratedwithinthesma
llregion.Therearetwo independent concepts of coherence.
 i) Temporalcoherence(criteriaoftime)
ii) Spatialcoherence(criteriaofspace)
5.State a few applications of LASER.

Lasershavewideapplicationsindifferentbranchesofscienceandengineeringbecauseofthefoll
owing.

1. Communication:
 Lasersareused inopticalcommunications, duetonarrowbandwidth.
 Thelaserbeamcanbeusedforthecommunicationb/wearth&moon(or)othersatellitesdueto
thenarrow angular speed.
 Usedtoestablishcommunicationbetweensubmarinesi.e;underwater communication.

2. Medical:
 Identificationoftumorsandcurification.
 Usedtodetect and removestones inkidneys, detecttumorsinbrain.

3. Industry:
Usedto makeholes indiamond andhard steel.
Usedtodetectflawsonthesurfaceof aeroplanesandsubmarines.

4. Chemical&Biological:
 Lasershavewide chemicalapplications.Theycaninitiateorfastenchemicalreactions.
 Usedintheseparationof isotopes.

6.What is the basic principle of optical fiber and write its satisfying conditions?

Principle:Anopticalfiberworksontheprinciple oftotalinternalreflection(TIR).

TotalInternalReflection:whenarayoflighttravelsfromadensermediumintoararermediuman
d if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then the light gets totally
reflectedintothe denser medium
1.whenarayoflighttravelsfromadensermediumintoararermedium
2.n1 >n2 , n1 : Refractive index of core , n2 : Refractive index of cladding
3.If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then the light gets totally
 reflectedintothe denser medium.
7.Explain Acceptance angle , Numerical Aperture of optical fibre.
AcceptanceAngle:

 Allrightraysfallingonopticalfiberarenottransmittedthroughthefiber.Onlythoselight rays
making i>c at the core-cladding interface are transmitted through the fiber by undergoing TIR.
For which angle of incidence, the refraction angle is greater than 90 0 will be
propagatedthroughTIR.

NumericalAperture(NA):
Numericalapertureisdefinedaslightgatheringcapacityofanopticalfiberwhichdependsontwof
actors i.e Core diameter & NA. The efficiency of optical fiber is expressed in terms of
NA, so itiscalled as figureof merit of optical fiber.

8.A fiber core and cladding have refractive 1.54 and 1.51 respectively, Find Numerical
Aperture of an optical fibre.

n1 =1.54 , n2 =1.51
𝑁𝐴 =𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1= 𝑛12−𝑛22 = 0.3
9.What are the applications of optical fiber in various fields ?
Theapplicationofopticalfibers invariousfieldsaregiven below:

(i) OpticalFibersusesin Medicalindustry:

Because of the extremely thin and flexible nature, it used in various instruments to view
internalbody parts by inserting into hollow spaces in the body. It is used as lasers during
surgeries,endoscopy,microscopyand biomedical research.

(ii) OpticalFibersusedin Communication.:

In the communication system, telecommunication has major uses of optical fiber cables
fortransmittingandreceivingpurposes.

(iii) OpticalFibersusedinDefensePurpose:

Fiber optics are used for data transmission in high-level data security fields of military
andaerospace applications. These are used in wirings in aircraft, hydrophones for
SONARs andSeismicapplications.
10.Explain losses associated with optical fibers.
Ans: Losses takes place in fiber optic cable is essential in order to increase the accuracy
of data transmission .The losses are classified into two types .
1.Absorption loss : It is caused by fiber itself or by impurities such a water ,metals
2.Scattering loss : It is intrinsic loss mechanism caused by interaction of light photons
with the glass
3.Bending loss : It is loss introduced by physical stress on fiber such are Macrobend and
Microbend losses


II. LONG ANSWERS

1.What are the important characterstics of LASER radiation ,explain in detail?

Ans :
CharacteristicsofLaserBeam:Someofthespecialpropertieswhichdistinguishlasersfromordinarylight
sources are characterized by:

1. Directionality
2. HighIntensity
3. Mono-chromacity
4. Coherence

1. Directionality:

Laseremitsradiationonlyinonedirectionduetothepresenceofcoherentphotons.Thedirectional
ityof laser beam isexpressed in terms of angleofdivergence(ᶲ)
DivergenceorAngular Spreadis givenbyᶲ= r2-r1/d2-d1
Where d1, d2 are any two distances from the laser source emitted and r1, r2 are the radii of
beamspots at a distance d1and d2respectively as shown in above figure. Laser light having
lessdivergence,it means thatlaserlight having more directionality.
2. High Intensity: Generally, light from conventional source spread uniformly in all
directions.For example, take 100 watt bulb and look at a distance of 30 cm, the power enter
into the eye islessthan thousand ofawatt. This is dueto uniform distribution of lightinall
directions.
Butincaseoflasers,lightisanarrowbeamanditsenergyisconcentratedwithinthesmallregion.Th
econcentration ofenergy accounts for greater intensity of lasers.
 3. Monochromacity: The light emitted by laser is highly monochromatic than any of the
otherconventional monochromatic light. A comparison b/w normal light and laser beam,
ordinarysodium(Na)lightemitsradiationatwavelengthof5893A0withthelinewidthof1A0.ButHe-
Nelaser of wave length 6328A0 with a narrow width of only 10-7 A0 i.e., Monochromacity of
laser is10million times better than normal light.
The degree of Monochromacity of the light is estimated by line of width (spreading
frequency ofline).
4. Coherence: If any wave appears as pure sine wave for longtime and infinite space, then it
issaidto beperfectly coherent.
Practically, no wave is perfectly coherent including lasers. But compared to other light
sources,lasershavehighdegreeofcoherencebecausealltheenergyisconcentratedwithinthesma
llregion.Therearetwo independent concepts of coherence.
iii) Temporalcoherence(criteriaoftime)
iv) Spatialcoherence(criteriaofspace)

2.Explain with neat diagrams of (i) Absorption (ii) Spontaneous emission (iii) Stimulated
emission of radiation.

Absorption:
When at atom absorbs an amount of energy „hv‟ in the form of photon from the external
agencyand excited into the higher energy levels from ground state, then this process is
known asabsorption.
Atom + hvatom*
SpontaneousEmission:
When an atom in the excited state emits a photon of energy „hv‟ coming down to ground
state
byitselfwithoutanyexternalagencyafterlifetime,suchanemissioniscalledspontaneousemissi
on.Atom*�
atom +hv
Photons released in spontaneous emission are not coherent. Hence spontaneous emission
is notusefulfor producing lasers.
Atom* atom + hv
StimulatedEmission:
When an atom in the excited state emits two photons of same energy „hv‟ while coming
to
downtogroundstatewiththeinfluenceofanexternalagencybeforelifetime,suchanemissionisc
alledstimulatedemission.
Atom* atom+2hv
3.Explain the construction and working of a Ruby laser with the help of a suitable diagrams

Principle,constructionandworkingofrubylaserwithenergylevel diagram:

 RubyLaser:It isa3levelsolid statelaser, discoveredbyDr. T.Maimannin1960.

Principle:
 ThechromiumIonsraisedtoexcitedstatesbyopticalpumpingusingxenonflash lamp
 Thentheatoms areaccumulated atmetastable stateby non-radiativetransition.
 Duetostimulatedemissionthetransitionofatomstakeplacefrommetastablestatetogrounds
tate therebyemitting laser beam.
Construction

FIG : RUBY LASER

  Rubyisacrystalofaluminumoxide(Al2O3)inwhichsomeofthealuminumions(Al3+)isreplaced
by chromium ions (Cr3+). This is done by doping small amount (0.05%) of chromiumoxide(Cr2O3)
in themeltof purified Al2O3.
 These chromium ions give the pink color to the crystal. Laser rods are prepared from
asinglecrystalofpinkruby. Al2O3doesnotparticipate inthelaser action.Itonlyactsas thehost.
 Therubycrystalisintheformofcylinder.Length
ofrubycrystalisusually2cmto30cmanddiameter0.5cm to 2 cm.
 Theendsofrubycrystalarepolished, groundedandmadeflat.
 The one of the ends is completely silvered while the other one is partially silvered to
gettheefficient output. Thus thetwo polished ends actas optical resonator system.
 A helical flash lamp filled with xenon is used as a pumping source. The ruby crystal
isplaced inside a xenon flash lamp. Thus, optical pumping is used to achieve population
inversioninruby laser.
 Asveryhightemperatureisproducedduringtheoperationofthelaser,therodissurroundedby
liquid nitrogen to cool the apparatus.
WorkingwithEnergyLevelDiagram(ELD):

EnergyLevelDiagramofRubyLaser

 Theflashlampisswitchedon,afewthousandjoulesofenergyisdischargedinafewmilliseconds.
 ApartofthisenergyexcitestheCr3+Ionstoexcitedstatefromtheirgroundstateandtherestheat
sup theapparatuscan becooledby thecoolingarrangement bypassing liquidnitrogen.
 Thechromiumionsrespondtothisflashlighthavingwavelength5600A0(Green),
 4200A0(Red)Also.
 WhentheCr3+Ionsare excitedtoenergylevel E3fromE1the populationinE3increases.
 Cr3+ Ions stay here(E3) for a very short time of the order of 10-8 sec, then they drop to
thelevel E2which is metastable state of lifetime 10-3sec .Here the transitions from E3to E2is
nonradiativein nature.
 As the lifetime of the state E2is much longer, the number of ions in this state goes
onincreasingwhileinthegroundstate(E1)goes
ondecreasing.Bythisprocesspopulationinversionisachieved between E2& E1.
 WhenanexcitedionpassesspontaneouslyfromthemetastablestateE2tothegroundstateE1it
emits a photon of wavelength 6943A0.
 This photon travels through the ruby rod and if it is moving parallel to the axis of
thecrystal,isreflectedback&forthbysilveredendsuntilitstimulatesanexcitedioninE2andcausesittoe
mitfreshphotoninphasewiththeearlierphoton.ThisstimulatedtransitiontriggersthelaserTransition
.
 The process is repeated again and again, because the photons repeatedly move along
thecrystalbeing reflectedfrom ends. Thephotons thus get multiplied.
4.What is Numerical Aperture and Acceptance angle. Obtain the expression for Numerical
Aperture of an optical fiber?

Ans:AcceptanceangleandNumericalAperture:

AcceptanceAngle:

 Allrightraysfallingonopticalfiberarenottransmittedthroughthefiber.Onlythoselight rays
making i>c at the core-cladding interface are transmitted through the fiber by undergoing TIR.
For which angle of incidence, the refraction angle is greater than 90 0 will be
propagatedthroughTIR.
 There by Acceptance Angle is defined as: The maximum angle of incidence to the axis
ofopticalfiberatwhich the lightraymay enterthe fiberso thatitcanbepropagatedthroughTIR.


 Considertheoptical fiberwith corerefractiveindexn1andcladding refractiveindexn2.Light

is incident on the axis of optical fiber at an angle 1. It can produce an angle
ofrefraction2.
 Therelationshipatthe interfaceisgiven
bySnell’slawas:Atair-coreinterface(A),
𝑛0𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1=𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2….(1)
Atcore-cladinterface(B),forTIR,
𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛(90°−𝜃2)=𝑛2𝑠𝑖𝑛90°
𝑛1𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2=𝑛2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =𝑛2…(2)
2
𝑛1

Eq(1)can bewritten as ,
𝑛0𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1=𝑛1 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃2….(3)Substit
uting (2)in (3),

𝑛22
𝑛0𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1= 𝑛1 1−
𝑛21

𝑛0𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1= 𝑛12−𝑛22
Forairn0=1,

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1= 𝑛12−𝑛22
𝜃1=𝜃𝐴=sin−1 𝑛12−𝑛22
Here A is called Acceptance angle. This gives max value of external incident
angle forWhichlight will propagate in thefiber.

NumericalAperture(NA):
Numericalapertureisdefinedaslightgatheringcapacityofanopticalfiberwhichdependsontwof
actors i.e Core diameter & NA. The efficiency of optical fiber is expressed in terms of
NA, so itiscalled as figureof merit of optical fiber.
NA isdefinedassine oftheacceptanceangle i.e.𝑁𝐴=sin𝜃𝐴
𝑁𝐴= 𝑛12−𝑛22


5.Explain in detail, i) Single mode and Multimode Fibers.

ii) Step Index and Graded Index Fibers.
 Basedonvariationinthecorerefractiveindex(n1),opticalfibersaredividedintotwotypes
1. Stepindexfiber
2. Gradedindexfiber
 Basedonmode ofpropagation,fibers arefurther classified into
1. Singlemodepropagation
2. Multimodepropagation
 Stepindexfibershavebothsingle&multimodepropagations.
 Gradedindex fibershave multimodepropagationonly
 Alltogetherin totalthree(3)typesoffibers
1. Singlemode stepindex fiber
2. Multimodestepindex fiber
3.Multimodegradedindex fiber

TransmissionofSignalinOpticalFibe
rs:
1.StepIndex
Fiber:Therefractiveindexofcorematerialisuniformthroughoutandundergoesasudden
changein theform ofstep at thecore-clad interface.


 Refractiveindexprofile
&propagationinsinglemode,stepindex&gradedindexfibers
a)SingleModeStepIndexFiber:

 Thevariationoftherefractiveindexofastepindexfiberasafunctionofdistancecanbemathema
ticallyrepresented as longitudinal cross section.
Note:Modeofpropagation:Itisdefinedasthenumberofpathsavailableforthelightraytotransfer
through the optical fiber.

Structure:

CoreDiameter:8 to12 m, usually8.5m

i) CladdingDiameter: Around125m
ii) SheathDiameter:250to1000 m
iii) NA:0.08 to 0.15 usually 0.10

PerformanceCharacteristics:
i) BandWidth:Greater than500 MHZKm.
ii) Attenuation:2to5 dB/Km.
iii) Applications:Thesefibersareideallysuitedforhighbandwidthapplicationsusingsinglemodeinjec
tioncoherent(LASER) sources.

B)MultiModeStepIndexFibers:
 ThesefibershavereasonablylargecorediametersandlargeNAtofacilitateefficienttransmissi
onto incoherent or coherent light sources.
 Thesefibersallowfinite numberofmodes.
 Normalizedfrequency(NF)isthecutofffrequency,belowwhichaparticularmodecannotexist.
This is related to NA, Radius ofthecore, and wavelength oflightas
NF=2𝜋/λa(NA),Wherea= radius ofcore

 The refractive index variation is represented as n(r) = n1(1-2Δ)1/2 =

n2HereΔ=fractional changein refractiveindex =n1-n2/n1
  The number of modes is given by the expression N = 4.9[d(NA)/
λ]2Whered =corediameter, λ=wavelength of radiation

Structure:
i) CoreDiameter: 30 to100m
ii) CladdingDiameter:105to150 m
iii) SheathDiameter:250 to1000m
iv) NA:0.2 to 0.3

PerformanceCharacteristics:
i) BandWidth: 300 MHZKm to 3 GHZKm.
ii) Attenuation:2to10dB/km.
iii) Applications:Theseareideallysuitedformediumtohighbandwidthapplicationsusingincoherent
andcoherentmultimode sources.

 ThesefibershavereasonablylargecorediametersandlargeNAtofacilitateefficienttransmissi
onto incoherent or coherent light sources.
 Thesefibersallowfinite numberofmodes.
 Normalizedfrequency(NF)isthecutofffrequency,belowwhichaparticularmodecannotexist.
This is related to NA, Radius ofthecore, and wavelength oflightas
NF=2𝜋/λa(NA),Wherea= radius ofcore
Structure:
i) CoreDiameter: 50 to200m
ii) CladdingDiameter:125to400 m
iii) SheathDiameter:250 to1000m
iv) NA:0.16 to 0.5

PerformanceCharacteristics:
i) BandWidth: 6to 50MHZ Km.
ii) Attenuation:2.6to50db/km.
iii) Applications: These fibers are ideally suited for limited band width and relatively low
 costapplications.

c)MultiModeGradedIndexFibers:
 Incaseofgraded indexfibers,therefractiveindex ofcoreismadetovary asafunction
ofradialdistancefrom thecentreof theoptical fiber.
 Refractive index increases from one end of core diameter to center and attains
maximumvalue at the centre. Again refractive index decreases as moving away from center to
towards theotherend ofthecorediameter.

 The refractive index variation is represented as n(r) = n1(1-2Δ)1/2 =

n2HereΔ=fractional changein refractiveindex =n1-n2/n1
 The number of modes is given by the expression N = 4.9[d(NA)/
λ]2Whered =corediameter, λ=wavelength of radiation
Structure:
v) CoreDiameter: 30 to100m
vi) CladdingDiameter:105to150 m
vii) SheathDiameter:250 to1000m
viii) NA:0.2 to 0.3

PerformanceCharacteristics:
iv) BandWidth: 300 MHZKm to 3 GHZKm.
v) Attenuation:2to10dB/km.
vi) Applications:Theseareideallysuitedformediumtohighbandwidthapplicationsusingincoherent
andcoherentmultimode sources.
  The refractive index variation is represented as n(r) = n1(1-2Δ)1/2 =
n2HereΔ=fractional changein refractiveindex =n1-n2/n1
 The number of modes is given by the expression N = 4.9[d(NA)/
λ]2Whered =corediameter, λ=wavelength of radiation

Structure:
ix) CoreDiameter: 30 to100m
x) CladdingDiameter:105to150 m
xi) SheathDiameter:250 to1000m
xii) NA:0.2 to 0.3

PerformanceCharacteristics:
vii) BandWidth: 300 MHZKm to 3 GHZKm.
viii) Attenuation:2to10dB/km.
ix) Applications:Theseareideallysuitedformediumtohighbandwidthapplicationsusingincoherent
andcoherentmultimode sources.




  WorkingwithEnergyLevelDiagram(ELD):

 EnergyLevelDiagramofRubyLaser

 Theflashlampisswitchedon,afewthousandjoulesofenergyisdischargedinafewmilliseconds.
 ApartofthisenergyexcitestheCr3+Ionstoexcitedstatefromtheirgroundstateandtherestheat
sup theapparatuscan becooledby thecoolingarrangement bypassing liquidnitrogen.
 Thechromiumionsrespondtothisflashlighthavingwavelength5600A0(Green),[4200A0(Red)
Also]
 WhentheCr3+Ionsare excitedtoenergylevel E3fromE1the populationinE3increases.
 Cr3+ Ions stay here(E3) for a very short time of the order of 10-8 sec, then they drop to
thelevel E2which is metastable state of lifetime 10-3sec .Here the transitions from E3to E2is
nonradiativein nature.

 As the lifetime of the state E2is much longer, the number of ions in this state goes
onincreasingwhileinthegroundstate(E1)goes
ondecreasing.Bythisprocesspopulationinversionisachieved between E2& E1.
 WhenanexcitedionpassesspontaneouslyfromthemetastablestateE2tothegroundstateE1it
emits a photon of wavelength 6943A0.
 This photon travels through the ruby rod and if it is moving parallel to the axis of
thecrystal,isreflectedback&forthbysilveredendsuntilitstimulatesanexcitedioninE2andcausesittoe
mitfreshphotoninphasewiththeearlierphoton.ThisstimulatedtransitiontriggersthelaserTransition
.

 The process is repeated again and again, because the photons repeatedly move along
thecrystalbeing reflectedfrom ends. Thephotons thus get multiplied.
  Whenthephotonbeambecomessufficientlyintense,suchthatapartofitemergesthroughthepartia
lly silvered endof thecrystal.

Unit-5
Short Answers.

1. Magnetic susceptibility: χ : the magnetic susceptibility of a material is the ratio

ofintensityofmagnetizationtothe intensityofmagnetizing field.
χ=M/H
ithasnounits.
M- Intensity of Magnetization
H- Magnetic field intensity

2. Let us consider the elemental dielectric having cubic structure. Since there are no
ionsand permanent dipoles in these materials the ionic polarizability 𝛼iand
orientationalpolarizability𝛼oare zero.

𝑃=𝑁𝛼e𝐸i
𝐷=𝑃+𝜀0𝐸
𝑃=𝐸𝜀0(𝜀r−1)

3. Spontaneous magnetization is the appearance of an ordered spin state

(magnetization) at zero applied magnetic field in a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
material below a critical point called the Curie temperature or T C .

4. Soft Magnets: The materials which are easily magnetized and demagnetized are
said tobe soft magnetic materials. In these materials, the domain wall moves
easily andreversibly, so that magnetization changes by large amounts for small
changes in themagneticfield.

Hard Magnets: The materials which are very difficult to magnetize and
demagnetize are said to behardmagneticmaterials. These materials can be
prepared by heating the magnetic materials to the requiredtemperature and
then suddenly cooling them by dipping in a cold liquid. In
thesematerials,impuritiesare purposelyintroducedtomake themhard.

5. These materials have the property of becoming electrically polarized

 whenmechanicalstress is applied. This property known as piezoelectric effect
.There is another effectknown as inverse piezoelectric effect. According
toinversepiezoelectric effect whenan electricstress is applied, thematerial
becomes strained.The strain is directlyproportionaltotheapplied fieldE.

When piezoelectric crystals are subjected to compression or tension,

oppositekinds of charges are developed at the opposite faces perpendicular to the
direction
oftheappliedforce.Thechargesproducedareproportionaltotheappliedforce.
6. As polarization measures additional flux density arising from the presence
of thematerialascomparedtothe freespace, ithasthesameunitsasD

𝑫=𝜀0𝑬+𝑷
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐷=𝜀0𝜀r𝐸
𝜀0𝜀r𝑬= 𝜀0𝑬+𝑷
𝑷= 𝜀0𝜀r𝑬− 𝜀0𝑬
𝑷=𝜀0(𝜀r−𝟏)𝑬
𝝌𝒆=(𝜀r−𝟏)
7. Hysteresis :Thelagof magnetizationbehindthe
magnetizationfieldisknownashysteresis.When a specimen of ferromagnetic material is
placed in a magnetic field, thespecimen is magnetized by induction. As the magnetic
intensity H is varied, the fluxdensity B in the material does not vary with H. the
variation of B with the variation ofHisasshowninthe figure.

8. Ampere’slaw
AccordingAmpere’scircuitallaw“ThelineintegralofmagneticfieldBalongaclosedpathdu
e to current is equal to the product of the permeability of free space and the
currentenclosedby theclosedpath”.Mathematicallyitisexpressedas:

Whereμ0=permeabilityoffreespace
9. The conventional direction of electric current is taken as opposed to the direction of flow of
electrons. If a charge Q flows through the cross-section of a conductor in time t, the current I
then I=Q/t. The S.I unit of charge is coulomb and measurement of electric current happens in
units of coulomb per second which is ‘ampere’. The current flows from the negative terminal
to the positive terminal of the cell.

10. WeknowthatB=µH

=µ0µrH
=µ0µrH+ µ0H-µ0H
=µ0H+µ0H(µr-1)

ButH(µr-

1)=MHenceB=µ0(H+M).
II. Long Answers.

1. HYSTERESIS(B-Hcurve)

Thelagof magnetizationbehindthe magnetizationfieldisknownashysteresis.

When a specimen of ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field,

thespecimen is magnetized by induction. As the magnetic intensity H is varied, the
fluxdensity B in the material does not vary with H. the variation of B with the
variation ofHisasshowninthe figure.

The point O represents an initially unmagnetized specimen and a zero

magneticintensity. As H is increased, B also increases but not uniformly, and a
point such as“a”isreached.
IfHisdecreased,Balsodecreasesbutfollowingapath“ab”.ThusBlagsbehind
H. when H becomes zero, B still has a value equal to OB. This magnetic flux
densityremaining in the specimen in the absence of any external field is called as the
“residual“magnetism. The power of retaining this magnetism is called
the“retentivity” of thespecimen. Thus the retentivity Brofa specimen is a measure of
the magnetic fluxremaining in the specimen, when the magnetizing force is removed.
If the magneticintensity H is now increased in the reverse direction, the value of B
further decreases,stilllagging behind H and becomes zero when H has a value equal to
OC. This valueofthemagneticintensityiscalledthecoercivity ofthespecimen.

➢ As H is increased beyond OC the specimenis increasingly

magnetizedinthe oppositedirection andapointsuchas“d” isreached.
➢ By taking H back from its negative maximum value, through zero, to
itsoriginalpositivemaximum value,asimilarcurve defaisobtained.
➢ As points „b‟ and „e‟where the specimen ismagnetised in the
absenceofanyexternalmagneticintensity,itissaid to beapermanentmagnet.
➢ Itisthusfoundthat,thefluxdensityBalwayslagsbehindH.thelaggingof B
behind H represents a cycle of magnetization of the specimen
isknownasthe hysteresiscurveofthespecimen.
Based on the area of hysteresis loop, ferromagnetic materials are
classified intohardandsoftmagneticmaterials.

2. INTERNALFIELDSINSOLIDS:

In dense substances like liquids and solids, the atoms or molecules are
muchmore closer to each other compared to those in rarified gases. When an electric
field isapplied to such a dielectric, the dipoles are created which are close enough to
interactamong themselves. Thus, the atom under consideration is affected not only by
E butalsobyallthe neighbouring dipoles.

“The total electric field at the site of an atom within the dielectric “ is called
thelocalfieldorinternalfield orLorentzfield.

Internalfield Ei=E1+E2+E3+ E4
 WhereE1=fieldintensityduetocharge densityonplates

E2=fieldintensityduetochargedensityinducedontwosidesofdielectricE3=Fieldi

ntensityduetootheratomsincavity

E4=fieldintensityduetopolarizationchargeonsurfaceofcavityFieldE1

E1isthefieldatAdue tothechargedensityontheplates.Fromthefieldtheory
E1 = D/ 𝜀0

𝐷=𝑃+𝜀o𝐸
E1 = D/ 𝜀0 = [P/ 𝜀0]+E

FieldE2

E2 is the field intensity at A due to the charge density induced on the two sides
ofthedielectric.
Therefore 𝐸2 = [-P/𝜀0]

FieldE3
E3 is the field intensity at A due to other atoms contained in the cavaity. We
areassumingacubicstructure,soE3=0becauseofsymmetry.

FieldE4

E4 is the field intensity due to polarization charges on the surface of cavity and
wascalculatedbyLorentzasgivenbelow.

If dA is the surface area of the sphere of radius r lying between θ and θ+dθ , where
θisthedirectionwith referencetothedirectionoftheappliedforce.
𝑑𝐴=2𝜋(𝑃𝑄)(𝑄𝑅)
Butsin𝜃=[PQ/r], PQ=rsinθ
𝜃=[QR/r], QR = rdθ

Hence
𝑑𝐴=2𝜋 rsinθ 𝑟𝑑𝜃)=2𝜋r2sinθ𝑑𝜃

The charge dq on the surface dA is equal to the normal component of the

 polarizationmultipliedbythe surfacearea.

Thereforedq=PcosθdA=P2πr2 sinθcosθdθ

ThefieldduetothischargeatAdenotedbydE4inthedirectionθ=0is
𝑑𝐸4= [𝑑𝑞×1×𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃/4𝜋𝜀o𝑟2]
= [𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2𝜋𝑟2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃/4𝜋𝜀o𝑟2]
= [P𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃sin𝜃𝑑𝜃/2𝜀o]

ThusthetotalfieldE4duetothechargesonthesurfaceoftheentirecavityisobtainedbyintegrati
ngdE4
π
ƒ𝑑𝐸4=[P/2𝜀o]ƒ𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 = [-P/6𝜀o ][-1-1] = P/3𝜀o
0

WhereEiistheinternalfieldorLorentzfield.

3. Let us consider the elemental dielectric having cubic structure. Since there are no
ionsand permanent dipoles in these materials the ionic polarizability 𝛼iand
orientationalpolarizability𝛼oare zero.

𝑃=𝑁𝛼e𝐸i
𝐷=𝑃+𝜀0𝐸
𝑃=𝐸𝜀0(𝜀r−1)

4. Domaintheoryofferromagnetism

According to Weiss, a virgin specimen of ferromagnetic material consists of a

numberofregionsordomainswhicharespontaneouslymagnetized.Ineachdomain,spontane
ousmagnetizationisduetoparallelalignmentofallmagneticdipoles.
 The direction of spontaneous magnetization varies from domain to domain.
Theresultant magnetization may be zero or nearly zero. When an external field is
applied,thereare twopossiblewaysofalignmentofarandomdomain.

Bymotionof domain walls

The volume of the domains that are favourably oriented with respect to the
themagnetizingfieldincreasesatthecostofthose thatareunfavourablyoriented.

Byrotation ofdomains

When the applied magnetic field is strong, rotation of the direction of

magnetizationoccursinthedirectionofthe field.

5. ClassificationofMagnetic materials

Magnetic materials have been classified into five types based on the influence
ofexternalfield onthem.

1. Diamagneticmaterials
2. Paramagneticmaterials
3. Ferromagneticmaterials
4. Antferromagneticmaterials
5. Ferrimagneticmaterials
Diamagnetism
Due to different orientations of various orbits of an atom, the net magnetic moment
iszero in dia-magnetic materials. When an external magnetic field is applied the
motionof electrons in their orbits changes resulting in induced magnetic moment in
adirectionoppositetothe directionofapplied field.

Propertiesofdiamagneticmaterials

1. Diamagnetic materials are those which experience a repelling force when

broughtnearthepoleofastrongmagnet.

2. In a non uniform magnetic field they are repelled away from stronger parts of
thefield.

3. Permanentdipolesareabsentindiamagneticmaterials.

4. Magneticsusceptibilityissmallandnegative.Itisindependentoftemperature

6. Magneticrelativepermeabilityisslightlylessthanunity.

7. Someexamples ofdiamagnetic materialsarecu,Bi,Pb,Znandrare gases

Paramagnetism

If the permanent dipoles are present but do not interact among themselves,
thematerialisparamagneticmaterial.
Propertiesofparamagneticmaterials

1. Paramagnetic materials are those which experience a feeble attractive

forcewhenbrought nearthepoleofamagnet.
2. Theyareattractedtowardsthestrongerpartsofmagnetic field.
3. Paramagneticmaterialspossesspermanentmagneticdipoles.
4. In the absence of an external applied field, the dipoles are randomly
oriented.Hencethenetmagnetizationinanygivendirectioniszero.
5. Paramagnetic susceptibility is small and positive and depends greatly
ontemperature
6. Paramagnetic susceptibility is independent of the applied magnetic
fieldstrength.
7. Relativepermeabilityisgreaterthan1butsmall.
8. Someexamplesofparamagnetic materialsAl,Mn,Pt,Cu,Cl
Temperaturedependencyofχ
1
𝜒𝖺
T

Ferromagnetism

Ferromagnetic materials show large magnetization even in the absence of

externalapplied field. This is due to a special form of interaction called exchange
couplingoccurring between adjacent atoms, coupling their magnetic moments
together in rigidparallelism.

Propertiesofferromagneticmaterials:

1. Ferromagnetic materials are those which experience a very strong

attractiveforcewhen broughtnear thepole ofamagnet.
2. Thesematerials,apartfromgettingmagnetizedparalleltothedirectionofthe
3. applied field, will continue to retain the magnetic property even after
themagnetizingfieldisremoved.
4. Inthesematerialsrelativepermeabilityisveryhigh.
5. Ferromagneticmaterialsexhibithysteresis.
6. Susceptibilityislargeandpositive.
7. Consists of a number of small regions which are spontaneously
magnetizedcalleddomains.
8. Examplesareiron, nickel,cobaltetc.
Temperaturedependencyofχ
1
𝜒𝖺
T–θ

The temperature above which a ferromagnetic material becomes

paramagneticiscalledcurietemperature
 Antiferromagnetism:

If the permanent dipoles line up in anti parallel direction, then the materials
areknownasanti ferromagneticmaterials.

Propertiesofantiferromagneticmaterials:

1. Electronspinsofneighbouringatomsarealignedantiparallel.
2. Susceptibilitydependsontemperatureandispositive.
3. Initially susceptibility increases slightly with temperature and beyond
Neeltemperaturethesusceptibilitydecreaseswithtemperature.
4. Spinalignmentisanti parallelandofequal magnitude.
Temperaturedependencyofχ
1
𝜒𝖺
T+θ

The temperature at which the susceptibility of anti ferromagnetic

materialbecomes maximum is called Neel temperature. After this temperature, the
materialbecomesparamagnetic.

Ferrimagnetism

The net magnetization of magnetic sub lattices is not zero since

antiparallelmoments are of different magnitudes. Hence ferromagnetic material
possesses a netmagneticmoment.

Propertiesofferromagneticmaterials

1. Ferromagneticmaterialspossessanetmagneticmoment.

2. Above Curie temperature, these materials become paramagnetic

andbelowit,theybehave asferromagnetic.

3. Theirmagneticsusceptibilityisverylarge and positive.

4. Spinalignmentisantparallelofdifferentmagnitudes.

5. Ferromagnetic domains become magnetic bubbles act as

memoryelements.
Comparisontableof dia,paraandferromagneticmaterials

S.No Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

1 Diamagnetic Paramagneticmaterialsattractt Ferro
materialsrepel the hemagneticlinesofforce magneticmaterialsa
magnetic linesofforce ttractthe
magnetic lines
offorceverystrongl
y
2 The magnitude The magnitude Themagnitudeofs
ofsusceptibilityisalway ofsusceptibilityispositiv usceptibilityis
snegative e verylargeand
positive
3 Therearenopermanentd Theypossesspermanent They
ipoles dipoles possesspermanent
dipoles
4 Noresultantmagnetic Spin Spin
moment alignmentofmagnetic alignment
momentsisrandom ofmagnetic
momentsisparalle
5 Examples: Examples : alkali Examples
Organicmaterials,alkal metals,transitionmetals,rar iron,cobaltnicke
iearths, eearth letc
bismuthetc metals
6 Magneticsusceptibility Magneticsusceptibilityiss Magneticsusce
issmallandnegative mallandpositive ptibilityis
largeandpositive
7 Permeabilityissmalla Permeabilityissmallandsl Permeability
ndlessthan1 ightlymorethan1 isveryhigh>>1