Wein’s constant: 2.

898×10−3 mK

Rayleigh Jean's law eqn (6) is successful for higher λ-side of the radiation spectrum
and fails for the lower λ-side. ultraviolet catastrophe

Planck's hypothesis:
1. Energy of each simple harmonic oscillator inside the blackbody radiation chamber may have any series of
discrete values, but not in between i.e., their energies cannot have any continuous values.
2. The oscillators cannot radiate energy or absorb energy continuously. However, an oscillator of frequency ν
can only radiate or absorb energy in units of hν, where h is Planck's constant. (h=6. 626×10−34J.s) Therefore,
if an oscillator of energy E1 changes its state to energy E2, then the energy radiated by that oscillator is E2-
E1=nhν, where n=1,2,3.... etc.

Photoelectric Effect:
1. The light of frequency less than a certain frequency v 0 is incapable of emitting electrons from the emitting
surface. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
2. The rate of emission of electrons is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

Matter Wave: According to De-Broglie, a wave is associated with each moving particle which is called matter waves.
Characteristics of Matter waves:
(i) Lighter the particle, greater is the De-Broglie wavelength.
(ii) The faster the particle moves, the smaller is its De-Broglie wavelength.
(iii) The De-Broglie wavelength of a particle in independent of the charge or nature of the particle.
(iv) The matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature. The electromagnetic waves are produced only by charged
particle.
Physical significance of the wave function:
The wave function ψ associated with a moving particle is not an observable quantity and does not have any direct
physical meaning. It is a complex quantity. The complex wave function can be represented as ψ(x, y, z, t) = a + ib and
its complex conjugate as ψ*(x, y, z, t) = a – ib. The product of wave function and its complex conjugate is ψ(x, y, z,
t)ψ*(x, y, z, t) = (a + ib) (a – ib) = a2 + b2 is a real quantity. However, this can represent the probability density of
locating the particle at a place in a given instant of time. The positive square root of ψ(x, y, z, t) ψ*(x, y, z, t) is
represented as |ψ(x, y, z, t)|, called the modulus of ψ. The quantity |ψ(x, y, z, t)|2 is called the probability.

Wave Packet:
A wave packet is a form of wave function that has a well-defined position as well as momentum.

Wave packet is a group of matter waves associated with a moving matter particle. Each component wave has its own
velocity and phase. Each component evolves in space and time individually and is a possible state of the matter
particle.

Ehrenfest’s Theorem: The Schrödinger wave equation leads to satisfaction of classical laws of motion on the
average. In other words, this theorem states that the average motion of a wave packet agree with the motion of the
corresponding classical particle.

Uncertainty Principle: it is fundamentally impossble to determine simultaneously the position and the momentum
of a particle to an accuracy beter than one quantum action of h.

an operator is a function over a space of physical states onto another space of physical states