Work 1

Harmonic Oscillations. Propagation of mechanical waves through gases

Undulatories phenomena

The wave, defined in the general case, represents the propagation phenomenon from
close to close in space and time of an oscillation (disturbance) through a field. The field, from the
point of view physically, it represents that form of existence of matter through which various
types of matter are transmitted interactions (electric field, magnetic field, electromagnetic field,
gravitational field).
The mechanical wave (often called the elastic wave) is the propagation phenomenon
from close, close, in space and in time of an oscillation (disturbance) through the particles of the
substance, or of a material environment. According to the definition above, it turns out that the
waves mechanical does not propagate in vacuum. Unlike mechanical waves, electromagnetic
waves and waves gravitational propagates also in the absence of the substance, so it propagates
in a vacuum.
Waves can be periodic or non-periodic. In the case of periodic waves, denote by T, the period of
the wave and represents the minimum time interval after which the phenomenon is repeated
undulating. Being a time interval, as in the case of oscillations, the unit of measure in SI is s
(second). The frequency  (niu) of the wave is defined analogous to that for oscillations,
satisfying relations (7) and (8) and is measured in SI in Hz (hertz).
The wavelength, denoted by the Greek letter "lambda", , is defined as the distance
traveled by wave for a period, T (fig. 1). The wavelength being a distance, the unit of measure in
SI is meter, [𝜆]𝑆𝐼 = 𝑚.

Fig. 1 Graphical representation of the elongation of the particles of the environment for a
harmonic wave according to the coordinate x if the initial phase 𝜑0 = 0

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Sizes specific to sinusoidal signals

During the proposed practical application, sinusoidal, frequency and frequency signals will be used
adjustable amplitudes, having mathematical expression:

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑈𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑0) (1)

where in u(t) represents the instantaneous value of the electrical voltage output from the
generator terminals, also called the elongation of the electric voltage oscillation, Umax is the
amplitude of the voltage, , and 0 is called the initial phase. The sizes u (t) and Umax have the
unit of measure in SI noted by V (volt).
Note that the relation (1) is in the form of the general equation of a harmonic oscillation:

𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑0) (2)

where A, , 0, are quantities constant in time.

Therefore, if the mathematical expression of a is known of the equation describing a
certain phenomenon and whether this expression is written using the function sin or cos (between
the two expressions there is a radial phase shift of rad), the sizes A, , 0 being constant in
time, then we identify that phenomenon as representing a harmonic oscillation.
The meanings of the sizes in relation (2) are the following:
• y= the elongation of the oscillation;
• t=time;
• A= the amplitude of oscillation=maximum elongation;
• 0= initial phase; [𝜑]𝑆𝐼 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑖;

The period, denoted by T, represents the minimum time interval after which the
phenomenon is repeated (fig.1), or in other words, means the time interval in which a complete
oscillation occurs. The unit of measure in SI for the period is the second, [𝑇]𝑆𝐼 = 𝑠.
The frequency, size noted with , or the Greek letter "niu", , is equal to the number of
complete oscillations performed by the system in time unit and has the formula:

(2)

[𝜈]𝑆𝐼 = 𝑠−1 = 𝐻𝑧(ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧)

Because over a period of time (T) there is only one complete oscillation, from relation (2) we
deduce:
(3)

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 Fig.2 Graphical representation of the y-elongation in the case of a linear harmonic oscillation

The expression of the angular frequency is:

(4)
Assuming the propagation of the wave through an ideal environment with constant speed, we
have the relationship

𝜆=𝑣∙𝑇 (5)
in which, taking into account formula (3), is obtained

(6)
From the relation (6) it results for the frequency of the formula wave

(7)

One of the objectives of the experimental practical application refers to the composition
of two oscillations harmonics perpendicular to the same frequency. After we have understanding
the meaning of each notion separately, related to harmonic oscillations, we intend to discuss the
phenomenon of composing those two oscillations of this type, perpendicular, of equal
frequencies or pulsations.
Let be two harmonic oscillations, of the same frequency, which are carried out in
perpendicular directions (in along the axis Ox and Oy respectively), described by the equations:

𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑01) (8)

𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑02) (9)

where x, y represent the elongations, A, B denote the amplitudes, 𝜔 is the angular frequency
(same for both oscillations), and 𝜑 01, 𝜑 02 are the initial phases.
The phenomenon of composing the oscillations implies the existence of a physical system
that simultaneously performs two oscillations of the same nature. We are interested in the
evolution of the system in this case. For simplicity, but without restricting the degree of
generality of the

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discussion, we will consider a material point, of mass m, which performs simultaneously two
harmonic mechanical oscillations, described by equations (8) and (9). For study the evolution of
the system, we must determine the shape of the resulting trajectory of the material point (place
geometrically of the points in space through which the body passes, or the shape of the curve
described by the material point on during his movement)

As a general method of determining the trajectory equation, the parameter is eliminated of

movement (in this case time t) between the equations of motion (8) and (9). The trajectory
equation will be represented of a functional relationship that will contain as variables only the x
and y coordinates.
The equation of the trajectory is demonstrated in the form:

(10)

This represents the general equation of an ellipse, framed by a rectangle of sides 2A (parallel to
the axis Ox) and 2B (parallel to the Oy axis), having the center at the origin of the coordinate
axes. The elliptical trajectory is transformed to a straight line when the phase difference between
the two oscillations, 𝛥𝜑 = 𝜑02 − 𝜑01, is integer of 2, expressed in radians.

Figure 3 The resultant trajectory of the material point which perform two perpendicular harmonic
oscillations simultaneously of the same frequency

The wave, defined in the general case, represents the propagation from close to close, in
space and time, of an oscillation (disturbances, or even a phenomenon) by means of a field.

The field, from a physical point of view, represents that form of existence of matter through
which various types of interactions are transmitted (electromagnetic field, gravitational field,
magnetohydrodynamic field, Higgs field, etc.).

The mechanical wave (often called the elastic wave) is the phenomenon of propagation
from point to point, in space and in time of an oscillation (disturbance) by means of the particles
of the substance.

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 In accordance with the previous definition, it follows that mechanical waves do not propagate
in a vacuum. Unlike mechanical waves, waves electromagnetic and gravitational waves also
propagate in the absence of matter, so they also propagate in vacuum.

Sounds, defined in the strict sense of their perception by the human receiver, also called audible
waves, are mechanical waves characterized by the following properties:

1. 𝜈 ∈ [20, 20000]𝐻𝑧
2. Time interval of sound emission ∆𝑡 = 0.06 𝑠
3. the intensity of the wave must fall within a certain range that depends on the frequency of
the wave; in the case of a normal sound (terminology used for sound characterized by
the frequency = 1000Hz), the intensity range is:
𝑊
𝐼 ∈ [10−12, 102] ( ) (11)
𝑚2

The equation that expresses the speed of propagation of audible mechanical waves through
gaseous media is>

𝑣 = √ 𝛾𝑅𝑇 (12)
𝜇

where  (the letter "gamma") represents the adiabatic coefficient or exponent of the gas,

𝐽 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑅 = 8.314 ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 ∙ 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝐾
R is the universal constant of ideal gases, T is the absolute temperature (temperature expressed in
kelvin).

Waves (wave phenomena) can be periodic or non-periodic. In the case of periodic waves, it is
denoted by T the period of the wave and represents the minimum time interval after which the
wave phenomenon is repeated. Being an interval of time, as in the case of oscillations, the SI unit
is s (second). The frequency  of the wave is defined analogously to that for oscillations,
satisfying relations (2) and (3) and is measured in SI in Hz (hertz).

The wavelength, denoted by the Greek letter "lambda", , is defined as the distance traveled by
the wave in period of time, T. Considering that the wave phenomenon propagates through an
ideal medium with constant speed, we have the equation:

𝜆=𝑣∙𝑇 (13)

and taking into account eq. (3), we can write the equation:
v
𝜆= (14)
𝜈

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from Eq. (14) we obtain the speed of wave propagation depending on the wavelength and
frequency:

v=𝜆∙𝜈 (15)

wavelength being a distance, the SI unit is the meter

Experimental device

The experimental assembly containsan electric generator with the possibility to vary
signal frequency in the AF (GF) domain, a speaker (D), a variable length glass tube (T), a
microphone (M), an oscilloscope and connecting cables for making electrical connections.
Scheme the experimental assembly is shown in FIG. 4.

Figure 4. Schematic of the experimental setup used to calibrate an AF sine signal generator by
the method of composing two harmonic oscillations perpendicular to the same frequency

As a sinusoidal AF signal is generated we use a function generator (GF) of type

MFG8250B, fig.5. Function generators can usually give three types of voltages: rectangular,
triangular and sinusoidal. Many GFs have the possibility of amplitude modulation and sinusoidal
signal frequency, as well as built-in frequency meter.

Note: Modulation is the phenomenon by which a certain low frequency electrical signal is
transmitted remotely using a high frequency electrical signal (carrier signal), which can be from
RF (radio frequency) domain. The carrier signal is modified by the fact that it carries the
information the original signal. The modulation leads to the modification of the oscillation
parameters (amplitude, phase, frequency) according to a given law.

In the case of the present work, the generator has the role of emitting a variable voltage
signal, with alternative character, having the form given by the relation (1). After adjusting the
shape of the voltage signal through pressing the button with the symbol ~, adjusts the frequency
of the voltage and its level (Level). Experimental measurements will be made for voltage
frequencies within the range (500, 2000) Hz and for amplitude values so that the sound produced
by the speaker does not it becomes uncomfortable for the other colleagues in the room.

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 Fig.5 Function generator MFG-8250B

Check the connection between the generator and the speaker. The speaker (D) acts as a
translator. The transducer is a device that transforms a size of a certain nature into a size of
another nature. In the case of the speaker used in the laboratory, the electrical voltage is
transformed into the mechanical oscillations of a membrane. The diffuser membrane transmits
oscillations of air molecules in the environment, which in turn transmits from close to close, from
molecule to molecule, the oscillations initial mechanics, giving rise to a mechanical wave. The
mechanical sound wave, which it also receives experimenters, propagate through the air in the
glass tube (T) between the transmitter (D) and the receiver (M).
The receiver (M) is a microphone that also functions as a translator, but in a sense
conversely than the speaker. The microphone transforms the mechanical sound signal into
alternating electrical voltage. The microphone used in the experiment works based on the
phenomenon called direct piezoelectric effect. It transforms alternative mechanical oscillations of
a quartz crystal into harmonic electrical oscillations of the electrical voltage between the
capacitors' fittings, between which the quartz crystal is located.
The electrical signal taken directly from (GF) is connected to the Ox inputs of (OC).
Notice how the bright spot describes a continuous horizontal line. That line describes the
oscillations of the luminous spot on the horizontal, oscillations that occur with the frequency of
the alternating voltage regulated from generator (500, 2000Hz). Because the frequency of the
alternating voltage is much higher than the one of the oscillations obtained previously by the
beating of the palms, the luminous spot will make oscillations so fast on Ox around the initial
position that due to the inertia of the human eye, we will not visually detect the oscillations point
by point, but we will see a continuous line on the horizontal.
After completing the steps listed above, the variable signal of (OC) is connected to (OC)
electrical voltage from (M), at the input on Oy, when the generator is on, as well as the signal of
variable voltage coming directly from (GF), at the input on Ox. The path (OC) is observed on the
path the resulting oscillation, in the form of a luminous ellipse. Check to see if for a given signal
frequency of electrical voltage, by the variation of the length of the tube (T), the ellipse becomes
a straight line, whose slope vary.

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 Way of working

1. Table 1 is filled with a number of lines equal to the number of determinations required of the
whole team working (usually 25 determinations).

Table 1
No. G (Hz) l1 (m) Line type l2 (m) Line type  (m) v(m)
l1 l2

2. For a fixed value of the frequency of the electrical voltage from the generator, denoted by
G (Hz), a value which go to Table 1, change the length of the tube (T) and thus change the
sound path between the speaker (D) and the microphone (M), until the ellipse turns on a screen
(OC) into a straight (line). Note the coordinate l1 (m), corresponding to this situation and draw
the line type (/ or \).
3. Continue the variation of the sound path through the tube (T) until it is obtained on the
screen (OC) again a straight line. Note in the coordinate table l2 (m) and draw the line type (/or \).

Fig. 6 Successive linear trajectories visualized on the cathodic oscilloscope (OC) screen 4.
Calculate the wavelength of the sound through the air column in the tube, using a formula of
type:

𝜆 = 2 ∙ |𝑙2 − 𝑙1| (16)

if l1 and l2 are the coordinates corresponding to successive straight lines of different slopes (/ and
\), fig.5.a, or from the relationship:
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 𝜆 = |𝑙2 − 𝑙1| (17)

if l1 and l2 are the coordinates corresponding to successive straight lines with the same slope (/ and
/ or \ and FIG. 6.b. and fig.6.c.
6. Plot the graph of the wavelength as a function of the wave period 𝜆 = 𝑓(𝑇), in Excel, using a
fit linear.
7. The speed of sound propagation through the air is determined from the slope of the graph.
8. The value established experimentally is compared with the theoretical value, calculated
according to Eq. (12).
In Eq. (12), the value of the adiabatic exponent of air (diatomic gas) is 𝛾 = 1.4, and the molar
mass of air 𝜇 = 28.96 ⸱10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

9. Calculate the frequency of the sound wave, with a precision of three decimal places, using
the formula: (23). It represents the experimental value of the frequency of the electrical
voltage signal emitted by the generator, E(Hz).

5. After running the C++ calculation program, students will transcribe the values on the PC
screen as follows:

- average value: ;

- absolute error: ;

- relative percentage error: 𝜀𝑟 = ⋯ . % < 5%;

- the final result of the lab working is writing in form:

Homework

1. Define oscillations.

2. Give examples of oscillations.

3. Define harmonic linear oscillator.

4. What is the equation of linear harmonic oscillations?

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5. Specify the meanings of the quantities in the linear harmonic oscillator equation and the
units of measurement.

6. Define the period of an oscillation. Specify the unit of measure.

7. Define the frequency of an oscillation. Specify the unit of measure.

8. What is the formula that expresses frequency as a function of period?

9. Specify the angular frequency equation according to:

a. the oscillation period;

b. the frequency of the oscillation.

10. What do you understand by the overlapping of two oscillations?

11. Define mechanical wave.

12. Define sounds, in the sense of human perception, specifying their properties.

13. Is the speed of sound higher in winter or summer?

14. Is the speed of sound in a vacuum higher compared to that through air? Justify the answer.

15. Define wavelength. Specify the unit of measure.

16. What is the equation of wavelength as a function of period.

17. What is the equation of wavelength as a function of frequency.

18. What is the equation of alternating electric voltage? Specify the meanings of the quantities
and the units of measurement.

19. What is a transducer?

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