Chapter 5

VIBRATION THEORY

Mathematical techniques allow us to quantify total displacement caused by all vibra-

tions, to convert the displacement measurements to velocity or acceleration, to sepa-
rate these data into their components through the use of FFT analysis, and to
determine the amplitudes and phases of these functions. Such quantification is neces-
sary if we are to isolate and correct abnormal vibrations in machinery.

PERIODICMOTION
Vibration is a periodic motion, or one that repeats itself after a certain interval of time
called the period, T. Figure 3.1 illustrated the periodic motion time-domain curve of a
steam turbine bearing pedestal. Displacement is plotted on the vertical, or Y-axis, and
time on the horizontal, or X-axis. The curve shown in Figure 3.4 is the sum of all
vibration components generated by the rotating element and bearing-support structure
of the turbine.

Harmonic Motion
The simplest kind of periodic motion or vibration, shown in Figure 3.2, is referred to
as harmonic. Harmonic motions repeat each time the rotating element or machine
component completes one complete cycle.

The relation between displacement and time for harmonic motion may be expressed by:

X = Xosin(wt)

The maximum value of the displacement is X, which is also called the amplitude.
The period, T, is usually measured in seconds; its reciprocal is the frequency of the
vibration, measured in cycles-per-second (cps) or Hertz (Hz).

17
18 Vibration Fundamentals

Figure 5.1 Illustration of vibration cycles.

f = -1
T
Another measure of frequency is the circular frequency, o,measured in radians per sec-
ond. From Figure 5.1, it is clear that a full cycle of vibration (ot)occurs after 360 degrees
or 2n radians (i.e., one full revolution). At this point, the function begins a new cycle.

rn = 2nf

For rotating machinery, the frequency is often expressed in vibrations per minute
(vpm) or
 Vibration Theory 19

!
Figure 5.2 Two harmonic motions with a phase angle between them.

0
VPM = -
n:
By definition, velocity is the first derivative of displacement with respect to time. For
a harmonic motion, the displacement equation is:

X = X,sin(wt)

The first derivative of this equation gives us the equation for velocity:
dX
v = - = X = wx,cos(ot)
dt
This relationship tells us that the velocity is also harmonic if the displacement is har-
monic and has a maximum value or amplitude of -mX,,.

By definition, acceleration is the second derivative of displacement (Le., the first

derivative of velocity) with respect to time:
1

d'X .. 2
a = - = X = -w Xosin(wt)
dt2
.. .
2
This function is also harmonic with amplitude of w X ,

Consider two frequencies given by the expression X, = a s i n ( o t ) and

X 2 = b sin( or + 4) , which are shown in Figure 5.2 plotted against wt as the X-axis.
The quantity, 4, in the equation for X , is known as the phase angle or phase difference
between the two vibrations. Because of 4, the two vibrations do not attain their maxi-
4 seconds behind the other. Note that
mum displacements at the same time. One is -
w
20 Vibration Fundamentals

Figure 5.3 Nonhmonic periodic motion.

these two motions have the same frequency, o.A phase angle has meaning only for
two motions of the same frequency.

Nonharmonic Motion
In most machinery, there are numerous sources of vibrations, therefore, most time-
domain vibration profiles are nonharmonic (represented by the solid line in Figure
5.3). While all harmonic motions are periodic, not every periodic motion is harmonic.
Figure 5.3 is the superposition of two sine waves having different frequencies, and the
dashed lines represent harmonic motions. These curves are represented by the follow-
ing equations:
XI = usin(olt)
X, = bsin(02t)
The total vibration represented by the solid line is the sum of the dashed lines. The
following equation represents the total vibration:

X = X, + X, = asin(olt) + bsin(02t)
Any periodic function can be represented as a series of sine functions having frequen-
cies of w, 20, 30, etc.:
 Vibration Theory 21

f ( t ) = A o + A l s i n ( w t + ( $ 1 ) + A 2 ~ i n ( 2 0 t + ( $ 2 ) + A 3 s i n ( 3 0 t + @ 3...
)+

This equation is known as a Fourier series, which is a function of time orxf). The
amplitudes (A,, A,, etc.) of the various discrete vibrations and their phase angles
@2, @ 3 . ..) can be determined mathematically when the value of function At) is
known. Note that these data are obtained through the use of a transducer and a porta-
ble vibration analyzer.

The terms, 2o,3o,etc., are referred to as the harmonics of the primary frequency, o.
In most vibration signatures, the primary frequency component is one of the running
speeds of the machine-train (lx or lo). In addition, a signature may be expected to
have one or more harmonics, for example, at two times (2x), three times (3x), and
other multiples of the primary running speed.

MEASURABLE
PARAMETERS
As shown previously, vibrations can be displayed graphically as plots, which are
referred to as vibration profiles or signatures. These plots are based on measurable
parameters (i.e., frequency and amplitude). Note that the terms profile and signature
are sometimes used interchangeably by industry. In this module, however, profile is
used to refer either to time-domain (also may be called time trace or waveform) or fre-
quency-domain plots. The term signature refers to a frequency-domain plot.

Frequency
Frequency is defined as the number of repetitions of a specific forcing function or
vibration component over a specific unit of time. Take for example a four-spoke wheel
with an accelerometer attached. Every time the shaft completes one rotation, each of
the four spokes passes the accelerometer once, which is referred to as four cycles per
revolution. Therefore, if the shaft rotates at 100 rpm, the frequency of the spokes pass-
ing the accelerometer is 400 cycles per minute (cpm). In addition to cpm, frequency is
commonly expressed in cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz).

Note that for simplicity, a machine element’s vibration frequency is commonly

expressed as a multiple of the shaft’s rotation speed. In the preceding example, the
frequency would be indicated as 4X, or four times the running speed. In addition,
because some malfunctions tend to occur at specific frequencies, it helps to segregate
certain classes of malfunctions from others.

Note, however, that the frequency/malfunction relationship is not mutually exclusive

and a specific mechanical problem cannot definitely be attributed to a unique fre-
quency. While frequency is a very important piece of information with regard to iso-
lating machinery malfunctions, it is only one part of the total picture. It is necessary to
evaluate all data before arriving at a conclusion.
22 Vibration Fundamentals

Amplitude
Amplitude refers to the maximum value of a motion or vibration. This value can be
represented in terms of displacement (mils), velocity (inches per second), or accelera-
tion (inches per second squared), each of which is discussed in more detail in the fol-
lowing section on Maximum Vibration Measurement.

Amplitude can be measured as the sum of all the forces causing vibrations within a
piece of machinery (broadband), as discrete measurements for the individual forces
(component), or for individual user-selected forces (narrowband).Broadband, compo-
nent, and narrowband are discussed in a later section titled Measurement Classifica-
tions. Also discussed in this section are the common curve elements: peak-to-peak,
zero-to-peak, and root-mean-square.

Maximum Vibration Measurement

The maximum value of a vibration, or amplitude, is expressed as displacement, veloc-
ity, or acceleration. Most of the microprocessor-based, frequency-domain vibration
systems will convert the acquired data to the desired form. Because industrial vibra-
tion-severity standards are typically expressed in one of these terms, it is necessary to
have a clear understanding of their relationship.

Displacement
Displacement is the actual change in distance or position of an object relative to a
reference point and is usually expressed in units of mils, 0.001 inch. For example,
displacement is the actual radial or axial movement of the shaft in relation to the nor-
mal centerline usually using the machine housing as the stationary reference. Vibra-
tion data, such as shaft displacement measurements acquired using a proximity
probe or displacement transducer should always be expressed in terms of mils, peak-
to-peak.

Velocity
Velocity is defined as the time rate of change of displacement (i.e., the first derivative,
or X ) and is usually expressed as inches per second (in./sec). In simple terms,
dt
velocity is a description of how fast a vibration component is moving rather than how
far, which is described by displacement.

Used in conjunction with zero-to-peak (PK) terms, velocity is the best representation
of the true energy generated by a machine when relative or bearing cap data are used.
(Note: Most vibration monitoring programs rely on data acquired from machine
housing or bearing caps.) In most cases, peak velocity values are used with vibration
data between 0 and 1000 Hz. These data are acquired with microprocessor-based,
frequency-domain systems.
 Vibration Theory 23

Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity (i.e., second derivative of
d’X
displacement, 7or X ) and is expressed in units of inches per second squared (in./
dt
sec2). Vibration frequencies above IO00 Hz should always be expressed as acceleration.

Acceleration is commonly expressed in terms of the gravitational constant, g, which is

32.17 ft/sec2. In vibration analysis applications, acceleration is typically expressed in
terms of g - R M S or g-PK.These are the best measures of the force generated by a
machine, a group of components, or one of its components.

Measurement Classifications
At least three classifications of amplitude measurements are used in vibration analysis:
broadband, narrowband, and component.

Broadband or Overall
The total energy of all vibration components generated by a machine is reflected by
broadband, or overall, amplitude measurements. The normal convention for express-
ing the frequency range of broadband energy is a filtered range between 10 and
10,000 Hz, or 600 and 600,000 cpm. Because most vibration-severity charts are based
on this filtered broadband, caution should be exercised to ensure that collected data
are consistent with the charts.

Narrowband
Narrowband amplitude measurements refer to those that result from monitoring the
energy generated by a user-selected group of vibration frequencies. Generally, this
amplitude represents the energy generated by a filtered band of vibration components,
failure mode, or forcing functions. For example, the total energy generated by flow
instability can be captured using a filtered narrowband around the vane or blade-pass-
ing frequency.

Component
The energy generated by a unique machine component, motion, or other forcing func-
tion can yield its own amplitude measurement. For example, the energy generated by
the rotational speed of a shaft, gear set meshing, or similar machine components gen-
erate discrete vibration components and their amplitude can be measured.

Common Elements of Curves

All vibration amplitude curves, which can represent displacement, velocity, or accel-
eration, have common elements that can be used to describe the function. These com-
mon elements are peak-to-peak, zero-to-peak, and root-mean-square, each of which is
illustrated in Figure 5.4.
24 Vibration Fundamentals

--c

x = A sin ut
Velocity
1= AI COS rt

i --b2sin

Accel .

Figure 5.4 Relationship of vibration amplitude.

Peak-to-Peak
As illustrated in Figure 5.4,the peak-to-peak amplitude (2A, where A is the zero-to-
peak) reflects the total amplitude generated by a machine, a group of components, or
one of its components. This depends on whether the data gathered are broadband, nar-
rowband, or component. The unit of measurement is useful when the analyst needs to
know the total displacement or maximum energy produced by the machine’s vibration
profile.

Technically, peak-to-peak values should be used in conjunction with actual shaft-dis-

placement data, which are measured with a proximity or displacement transducer.
Peak-to-peak terms should not be used for vibration data acquired using either rela-
tive vibration data from bearing caps or when using a velocity or acceleration trans-
ducer. The only exception is when vibration levels must be compared to vibration-
severity charts based on peak-to-peak values.

Zero-to-Peak
Zero-to-peak (A), or simply peak, values are equal to one-half of the peak-to-peak
value. In general, relative vibration data acquired using a velocity transducer are
expressed in terms of peak.
 Vibration Theory 25

Root-Mean-Square
Root-mean-square (RMS) is the statistical average value of the amplitude generated
by a machine, one of its components, or a group of components. Referring to Figure
5.4, RMS is equal to 0.707 of the zero-to-peak value, A. Normally, R M S data are used
in conjunction with relative vibration data acquired using an accelerometer or
expressed in terms of acceleration.