TOFD - Study Material, Rev.1, 24.05.2019

BIT Inspection Technology
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TOFD PCN NDT Training / Rev.1 / 24.05.2019

Revision Control History
Revision Date Pages Reason for revision

0 12.05.201 - Initial Issue
1 24.05.2019 30, 83, 86 Typing error correction
Rev. 1, 24.05.2019 BIT Inspection Technology Page 1 of 124

Time Of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
1. ULTRASONIC NON‐DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 4

1.1 Pulse‐Echo Detection of Flaws 4
1.2 Flaw Sizing with The Pulse‐Echo Technique 5
1.3 Comparison of Flaw Sizing Accuracy for Different Techniques 8
1.4 The Time of Flight Diffraction Technique 8
1.5 History of TOFD Development 10
1.6 TOFD Advantages and Limitations 11
2. THE PRINCIPLES OF TOFD 15
2.1 Diffraction 15
2.2 Waves 16
2.3 Conventional Use of Diffraction 17
2.4 Signals 18
2.5 Basics of TOFD inspection 18
2.6 A‐Scan with no Defect Present 19
2.7 A‐Scan with Defect Present 20
2.8 Lateral Wave 20
2.9 Back Wall Signal 21
2.10 Defect Signals 21
2.11 Shear or Mode Converted Shear Signals 21
2.12 Basic Principles of the TOFD Technique (TOFD: Typical Setup) 22
2.13 A‐Scan Signals 22
2.14 Some Typical Defects 23
2.15 Data Visualization 24
2.16 What do TOFD scans really look like? 24
2.17 Signals 25
2.18 Choosing an Angle 26
2.19 Depth calculation 27
2.20 Signal Time 27
2.21 What is Probe Centre Separation (PCS)? 28
2.22 How is PCS determined? 28
2.23 How is PCS Determined? General Applications 29
2.24 Calculation of PCS 29
2.25 Focus at a Point of Interest 29
2.26 Types of TOFD Scan 30
2.27 Transverse Scan 31
2.28 Parallel Scan 31
3. Equipment used in TOFD 32
3.1 Digital Control 33
3.2 Pulsers and Receivers 33
3.3 Pulsers 34
3.3.1 Spike Pulser 35
3.3.2 Tone Burst 35

3.3.3 Square Wave Pulsers 36
3.4 Receivers 38
3.5 Gates 40
3.6 Data Acquisition and Automated Systems 41
3.7 Instrument Outputs 42
3.8 Memory and Digitisation Aspects 43
3.9 Data Processing 48
3.10 Scanning Equipment 51
3.11 Limitations of Mechanised Scanning 52
3.12 Scanning Speed 52
3.13 Encoders 55
4.EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS 60
4.1 Ultrasonic equipment and display 60
4.2 Ultrasonic probes 61
4.3 Scanning mechanisms 61
4.4 Equipment set‐up procedures 62
4.5 Probe choice and probe separation 62
4.6 Time window setting 63
4.7 Sensitivity setting 64
4.8 Scan resolution setting 64
4.9 Setting of scanning speed 64
4.10 Checking system performance 64
4.11 System Verification Reference blocks 65
5. TOFD Depth, Ring‐Time Issues and Errors 75
5.1 Depth and Ring‐time Calculations 75
5.2 Flaw Position Errors 81
5.3 Timing Error 81
5.4 Acoustic Velocity Error 81
5.5 PCS Error 82
5.6 Lateral Position Error 83
5.7 Frequency Content Effects 86
6. ANALYSIS SOFTWARE FEATURES & TOFD OF COMPLEX GEOMETRY 89
6.1 Linearization 89
6.2 Lateral /Back wall Straighten and Removal 89
6.3 Parabolic Cursor 90
6.4 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique ‐ SAFT 91
6.5 Split Spectrum Processing 94
6.6 Locus Plots 95
6.7 Curved Surfaces and Complex Geometry 95
6.8 Complex Geometry 97
7.INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION 99
7.1 Development of TOFD codes and standards 99
7.2 ASME Adaptations to TOFD 99
7.3 Indications from surface breaking discontinuities 99

7.4 Indications from embedded discontinuities 100
7.5 BASICS OF DIMENSIONING 100
7.6 Height measurement 100
7.7 Method 1 101

7.8 Method 2 101
7.9 Method 3 102
7.10 Examples 103
7.11 Length measurement 103
7.12 Scanning surface discontinuity 103
7.13 Opposite surface discontinuity 104
7.14 Through wall discontinuity 104
7.15 Embedded point‐like indication 105
7.16 Flaw Tip 106
7.17 Flaw Position Errors 106
7.18 Evaluation 106
7.19 Single Flaw Images 107
7.20 Multiple Flaw Images 115
7.21 Typical Problems with TOFD 117

1. ULTRASONIC NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
If an electric potential is applied to a piezoelectric type material it oscillates and if it is of the

right thickness will produce waves of ultrasound of frequencies most useful for inspecting
metal components. This material is the basis of ultrasonic probes which produce
longitudinal waves, generally called compression waves. If the longitudinal waves enter
metal at an angle then they refract in the metal and produce both longitudinal and shear
waves, the angles of the two types of waves depending on the velocity of shear and
longitudinal waves in the metal and the velocity of the longitudinal waves in the probe shoe
material. Shear waves are transmitted by a periodic shear force and can only exist in
materials like metals which possess shear elasticity. Liquids cannot sustain a shear force.
For normal ultrasonic inspection of metals ultrasonic frequencies of between 2 and 5 MHz
are used. The corresponding wavelength of the waves are found from the formula,
Velocity = wavelength X Frequency
Velocity is usually defined in units of m/s and typical values in steel are 5950 m/s for
longitudinal waves and 3230 m/s for shear waves. Since the probe frequency is in units of
MHz (and we shall see that time is defined in microseconds in TOFD) it is more convenient
to define the velocity units as mm/μs. In these units the wavelength in the above equation
is given in mm. Thus for the above frequencies the wavelength of longitudinal waves is in
the range 1 to 3 mm and for shear waves from 0.6 to 1.6 mm. For reflectors of size less than
half a wavelength interference can take place in the reflected waves and hence the minimum
size of cracks that can reliably be detected is equivalent to one half of wavelength. To detect
small cracks in thin higher frequencies are used but in thick material the increasing
attenuation with increase in frequency generally prevents the use of much higher
frequencies.
For conventional Pulse-echo ultrasonic inspections angled shear waves are very important
since at a given frequency, they have a wavelength half that of longitudinal waves, allowing
for the resolution of smaller defects. Also, as will be seen in a later chapter, for a given size
of crystal diameter and frequency shear waves produce a smaller beam spread and a
consequently higher beam intensity and accurate sizing ability than longitudinal waves.
1.1 PULSE-ECHO DETECTION OF FLAWS
An Ultrasonic inspection of a sample is carried out by scanning the metal with a beam of
ultrasound. Any reflectors in the metal are only detected if the sound is reflected back from
the discontinuity and returns to the crystal element of the probe, where it vibrates the crystal
and is converted into electrical signals. In order to reflect the waves back the beam must
ideally be at right angles to the reflector surface. This is so called “Specular” reflection. If
the surface is tilted with respect to the direction of the beam of ultrasound then the reflected
waves may miss the probe crystal altogether and the discontinuity will remain undetected.

The proportion of the sound beam getting back to the crystal falls off rapidly with increasing
angles of tilt and skew from this ideal position. A tilt of only 5 degrees can cause the
amplitude to fall by a factor of about 2 (6dB) and 10 degrees or more may result in loss of
detection.
Thus for normal pulse-echo inspections with angled shear waves it is important to scan the
metal with a range of probe angles chosen to give the best chance of detecting the expected
orientations of the cracks of main interest. In general a practical compromise has to be made.
Vertical cracks are difficult to detect because of the difficulty of getting an ultrasonic beam
at right angles to the crack surface and pair of probes may be needed to detect the cracks
(tandem technique).
The decision to report the presence of a reflector in pulse echo inspections is based initially
on the amplitude of the signal compared to some threshold level. This is a relatively simple
concept which works well practically. The threshold level is usually determined from the
amplitude of the signal reflected back from a standard reflector in a calibration block.
However, since the roughness of the reflector surface, as well as its orientation, directly
effect the amplitude of the returned signal an awareness of the likely probability of detection
is very important. Ultrasonic inspection is not perfect and the skill and experience of the
operator is very important, hence the need for training.
1.2 FLAW SIZING WITH THE PULSE-ECHO TECHNIQUE
The method of flaw sizing used in the pulse-echo technique depends on the size of the flaw
with respect to the beam spread of the probe (see figure 1.1 below)

The basic assumption in determining the size of flaws that are smaller than the beam spread
is that the amplitude of the reflected signal will be proportional to the area of the flaw in the
beam of ultrasound. In this situation the estimate of size is based on the relative size of the
amplitude with respect to that obtained from a standard reflector at a similar range.
Standard reflectors are provided in various calibration blocks and consist of flat bottomed
holes (FBH), side drilled holes (SDH) and notches. Thus the accuracy very much depends
on the degree of roughness of the flaw surface and its exact orientation with respect to the
ultrasonic beam.
For flaw sizes larger than the beam spread increasing the size of the flaw will have no effect
on the amplitude of the signal since the area outside the beam will not contribute to the
reflected signal. The flaw size has to be obtained therefore by scanning the probe over the
flaw and noting the position where a certain change in amplitude takes place. This is
illustrated in the figure 1.2 below for an angled shear wave probe sizing a lack of fusion
flaw.

When the probe is moved towards the weld the flaw starts to appear in the ultrasonic beam
and the amplitude of the flaw signal rises. Once the flaw area fills the beam the amplitude
stays constant until the beam starts to pass the other end of the flaw, when the amplitude
starts to fall. It is assumed for this explanation that a distance amplitude correction has been
applied so that there is no variation of amplitude with range. The maximum amplitude trace
across the flaw is called an echodynamic trace and is shown in the bottom half of the figure.
At the level where the signal amplitude is half that of the maximum signal it is assumed that
only half the flaw area is in the beam of ultrasound that that the centre of the probe is
opposite the edge of the flaw. Thus if the positions of the probe are noted where the
amplitude has dropped by 6dB the size of the flaw can be measured and hence the term 6dB
drop sizing. If the distance between the probe positions is x mm then the width w of the
flaw is given by w = x cosα where α is the angle of the beam centre with respect to the
normal to the surface of the metal on which the probe sits. The through wall height of the
flaw (the critical measurement) h is then
h= x cosα sin α
To determine the length of the flaw along the weld the probe must be positioned so as to
obtain the maximum amplitude signal and them moved parallel to the weld to determine
the 6dB drop positions. The length is the distance between the positions.
Again the main problem with the 6dB drop technique is the variation in amplitude due to
the possible roughness of scattering surface and the fact that the flaw surface is unlikely to
be normal to the ultrasonic beam.
Some typical smallest sizes of flaws which can be detected and typical sizing errors are listed
below from document IIS/IIW-580-86 from commission V of the International Institute of
Welding for pulse-echo ultrasonics.

1.3 COMPARISION OF FLAW SIZING ACCURACY FOR DIFFERENT
TECHNIQUES
Other techniques are available for sizing flaws. For surface opening flaws, if access is
available to the surface the alternating current potential drop (ACPD) is an accurate
technique. The technique essentially measures the drop in voltage between two surface
contacts when placed on either side of the flaw, the additional voltage drop being due to
current having to flow around the flaw surface. Specialized eddy current techniques
(ACFM) can also measure the size of near surface flaws. One of the most accurate and useful
techniques for measuring flaw height is the TOFD technique. The importance of the TOFD
technique is seen from the comparison of the accuracy of different crack sizing techniques
summarised below.
1.4 THE TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE
BACKGROUND TO THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOFD TECHNIQUE
The most serious type of defects in welds and metal components are planar cracks since
they are the most likely to grow and cause failure of the component and hence the
importance of ultrasonic inspection since ultrasonics is the most suitable technique for
determining the position and sizing such defects. The importance of developing more
accurate sizing techniques than afforded by conventional pulse echo inspections became
apparent in the 1960’s, especially in the nuclear and chemical plant industries. When defects
where found in these plants repair of the damaged components was often very difficult or
impossible, one of the problems being the difficulty of carrying out the necessary heat
treatment after welding. In the nuclear industry there was also the problem of access and
often high radiation levels. To shut down and replace such plant is the very expensive
exercise.
Thus the science of fracture mechanics developed to enable the growth rate of defects to be
predicted and to calculated the critical size of defect below which it was possible to carry on
safely running the plant. Often, because of the difficulties in determining all the properties
necessary for the calculations (example. Fracture toughness) very conservative estimates
have to be made and the consequent life time predictions for the safe operations of the plant
became very short.

If it could be proved by successive Ultrasonic examinations of the defects that they are not
growing or they are growing at a much slower rate than predicted then this would be very
important to the plant operator. If the defects are stable and below the critical size then the
plant can stay in operation. If they are growing at a slower rate hen the lifetime of the plant
can be extended. Also if the growth rate can be accurately measured than suitable plans can
be drawn for the programmed repair or replacement of the plant, again saving the plant
operator a lot of expense.
Unexpected shutdowns with the consequent loss of output and the need for unplanned
repairs are the plant operators nightmare. The need in order to measure the growth rate of
cracks, is accurate through wall sizing. The in adequacy of conventional pulse-echo
techniques is illustrated in the figure below. The two plots show the predicted life time curve
for a particular defect and it is predicted to reach the critical size after about 1.5 years. In the
top illustration is shown the results of pulse-echo measurements of the crack height at the
yearly plant shutdowns.
Because of the large error on the measurements indicated by the error bar the measurements
cannot influence the conservative predicted life time. The bottom plot illustrates the results
of measurements with TOFD. Since the errors are now much smaller it is apparent that the
actual growth is less than the predicted growth and the actual plant lifetime can be
extended.
The ability to size flaws more accurately should also help to limit the number of falls calls.
If the requirement is that a very high probability of detection is required for flaws above a
certain size then the threshold for pulse-echo detection has to be set considerably lower than
this size because of the large error with the pulse-echo technique. This means that a
considerable number of flaws, which are actually below this size are reported as being above
this size because they appear with the pulseecho technique to be larger. Thus while a very
high probability of detection may be obtained for flaws above the size of interest there will
be a large falls call rate. This is made worse by the fact that the distribution curve of flaw
size against number of flaws usually rises towards the smaller sizes.
Thus in principle the detection threshold for the more accurate TOFD technique can be set
much closer to the size of interest and thus greatly reduce the falls call rate.

1.5 History of TOFD Development
In the last section the importance of accurate sizing of cracks was described.
Especially in the nuclear industry. For this reason the national NDT Centre, Harweel (Then
part of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority – UKAEA) asked Dr.Maurice Silk to
try and develop an ultrasonic sizing technique more accurate than the conventional pulse-
echo method. In the early 1970’s Dr.Silk developed the technique known as Time of Flight
Diffraction (TOFD)
The most important differences from conventional pulse-echo are

a) Its more accurate sizing accuracy (typically ±1mm and in a monitoring situation
±0.3mm) and the almost independence of angle of the flaw for detection. The sizing
is based on the transit time of the diffracted signal and doesn’t depend on the
amplitude.
b) It will be seen that with TOFD a simple amplitude threshold cannot be applied for
rejection or reporting flaws since the amplitude of the diffraction signals doesn’t
depend on the size of flaw and all the data must be analysed before any flaws can be
rejected. Hence the TOFD technique training and experience are essential.

For a number of years TOFD remained largely a laboratory tool but the realisation of its
importance and the proposed public enquiry for a PWR Reactor in UK lead to a number of
major trials in the early 1980’s to evaluate the best possible UT Technique for the reactor
pressure vessel and other major components. The trials were known as Defect detection
Trials (DDT). The trials were very important in view of international PISC exercise in the
late 1970’s, which was aimed at establishing the capability of the ASME code Ultrasonic
procedures and which obtained poor results for the reliability and accuracy of conventional
Pulse-echo inspections. Many other trials and validations have been carried out comparing
different techniques and in all these tests TOFD has always proved to be virtually the most
reliable and accurate technique.
1.6 TOFD Advantages and Limitations
If one was to listen to some of the proponents of TOFD it would seem that TOFD is the
panacea of inspection problems. This is clearly untrue. It has its advantages and limitations,
like any NDT method. Depending on the application, TOFD may stand as a useful option
on its own. In other situations, it is best used with support from other NDT methods or as a
support option to other NDT methods.
A brief list of TOFD pros and cons should help the practitioner to decide how and when to
best use this NDT tool.
Advantages:
Repeatability
TOFD (especially when used with a positioning encoded provides measurements in

real units (e.g. millimeters) that are much more useful to engineers than dB’s or
equivalent scales of response. A scan made of a weld with a TOFD setup by one
operator will be essentially identical to TOFD scan made by another operator
(assuming both use similar probes and settings). This makes TOFD ideal for flaw
monitoring.
Accuracy
Generally levels of accuracy attainable by TOFD are within ±0.5mm in terms of

(critical) through wall extent and ± 0.5 to 1.0mm in terms of length. Position along
the weld and with respect to the weld centreline can usually be established to within
0.5mm and angular dispositions can be resolved to within a few degrees when
appropriate scan procedures are used. This accuracy and reliability makes TOFD a
suitable NDT tool for fracture mechanics assessment (otherwise destructive methods
and physical measurement would be required).

Data Storage
TOFD systems now provide digital storage of all relevant parameters. They can be
retrieved and redisplayed at any time. Position information can ensure that flaw
locations can be reliably identified and results from periodic inspections compared
for changes. Digital data storage allows elaborate analysis techniques including
noise-suppression, pattern recognition processes, signal subtraction and extraction
and a variety of other digital signal processes (DSP).
Detection Speed
When a TOFD scan can be made using a single nonparallel scan, results are fast
(almost immediate) and limited by only the scanning speed. The great debate about
reliability being compromised by speed is not of the same magnitude concern for
TOFD. The many round robins have shown that it is fast AND efficient, having some
of the highest probability of detection of any of the NDT methods.
Commercial considerations make speed an important factor. The advantage that

TOFD can provide both detection and sizing from the same data without
recalibration and rescanning has a significant bearing on time and on cost.
Volume Coverage
Most NDT methods have volume coverage and resolution linked to speed. However,
TOFD provides volumetric coverage by linearly scanning wide beam transducers at
relatively high speed and processing all positional and inspection data in nearly real
time. So unlike radiography where thicker sections would require longer exposure
on slower film (to maintain the same resolution), it is possible to inspect thicker
sections without a reduction in speed or resolution when scanning with TOFD.
The full volume of weld material and HAZs at speeds which cannot even be
considered by conventional ultrasonic methods are made easily and quickly with
TOFD. Scan rates of 100-150mm/sec are common even using manual probe
movement and even higher rates of coverage can be achieved when automated
scanning is used. It should be remembered that these rates relate to the length of weld
volumetrically inspected in a single pass of the transducers and not just the scanning
speed of the probes.

Sensitivity
This item may be an advantage or disadvantage. It depends on your point of view.

TOFD is generally configured to “see everything”. When the test specimen is
relatively clean or the material highly refined there is no issue with the sensitivity.
However, where the test materials contains many major anomalies to be reported or
in coarse material where the grain boundaries are on the order of size of the flaws,
TOFD sensitivity can be construed as a hindrance and, in certain circumstances, can
make interpretation and sentencing a time consuming ordeal. When the data storage
advantage is considered in light of sensitivity it might be noted that one of the
features of digital processing is the ability to increase gain via software. That means
that small (un-saturating) signals can be increased after data collection.
Easy discrimination of defects and geometry
A common problem experienced in manual ultrasonic testing of welds is the issue of

operator skills in differentiating between flaw signals and signals originating from
surface geometries. When TOFD is carried out on a butt weld with the root and cap
reinforcement left on the TOFD data display provide unambiguous indications easily
discriminated from the reinforcement metal.
Flaw orientation
Because of the omni-directional aspect of diffracted signals TOFD is sensitive to

virtually all types of defects regardless of orientation. This is also partly attributable
to the very wide angular coverage of the divergent beam used. Providing the flaw
falls within the effective beam envelope, the low amplitude signals diffracted from
its edges will be captured and displayed in correct relative position.
Coupling Status
TOFD data can be collected by manual or mechanised methods of probe motion. Any
manual ultrasonic operator doing pulse-echo testing monitors the A-scan and can
recognise when the coupling is not as effective by a loss of the grass level. However,
in the case of TOFD scanning the operator does not monitor the A-scan and when
scans are lengthy or when mechanised, the operator has no sense of the coupling
condition by simply looking at the probes moving on the surface. By observing the
data collected for the lateral wave amplitude and the associated “grain-noise” the
TOFD display is an effective indicator of how well the probes were coupled.
Maintaining coupling is made somewhat more difficult than standard manual
scanning because both the transmitter and receiver must be well-coupled to the test
surface.

Reduced Operator Reliance
Since TOFD data can be collected and stored to a computer file for later analysis it is
possible to reduce the reliance of the test on the probe operator. Many applications
can now be configured by a senior operator and then the data acquisition assigned
to a “field team”. This might consist of a person that operates the computer data
acquisition unit and another that pushes the probe along the weld. Sufficient
experience and competence is required by this team to ensure that the data collected
is good. Then final assessment and sentencing can be carried out at a later time by
the senior operator.
Limitations:
Weak Signals
Typically the diffracted signals associated with TOFD are 20-30dB lower than those
associated with specular reflections using pulse-echo techniques. This tends to put a
“strain” on the ultrasonic receiver units and most are operated near their maximum
amplification capabilities. Electrical noise is a common problem with many TOFD
systems and attempts to reduce this noise generally involve the use of pre-amplifiers
near the probe or remote pulser/pre-amp combinations.
“Dead” Zones
The most widely accepted “limitation” to TOFD is the loss of information due to ring
time. This is especially noticeable at the entry surface but a similar zone occurs on the
far side (back-wall). Brown points out that TOFD does suffer from a near surface
effect caused by its inherent lateral wave but his is not a serious problem unless very
near surface sizing is called for. He further points out that very few near surface
(included) defects can be considered integrity critical and it is debatable whether the
‘near field’ characteristics of single compression probes and the inherent ‘dead
zones’ effects of twin probes could provide better resolution using conventional
reflectivity methods.
Radiography may (or may not) have some improved near-surface sensitivity but
provides no worthwhile through wall positional information. If such defects are of
genuine concern then a combination of TOFD and remote field eddy current or
ultrasonic ‘head wave’ testing should be performed.

2. PRINCIPLES OF TOFD
When an ultrasonic wave interacts with a long crack-like flaw it results in the production
of diffracted waves from the crack tips, in addition to any ultrasonic waves reflected from
the surface of the crack. The diffracted waves are much weaker than specularly reflected
waves used for conventional ultrasonic inspection, but they radiate from the tips in all
directions along the same plane as the incident ultrasonic waves as indicated in figure.
The phenomena of diffraction is nothing new and occurs with all types of waves, e.g. light
and water waves. It is very well known in light especially when light is passed through a
slit or past an edge and contributes to the resolving power of telescopes and other optical
instruments.to explain diffraction when waves pass through a slot.
2.1 Diffraction
 Modification or deflection of sound beam

 Sound striking defect causes oscillation
 Ends of defect become point sources
 Not related to orientation of defect
 Weaker signal than reflected – needs higher gain
 Sharp defects provide best emitters
 Tips signals are located accurately
 Time of flight of tip signals used to size

2.2 Waves

2.3 Conventional Use of Diffraction
 Tip diffraction method (satellite-pulse observation technique)

2.4 Signals
 Signals Received
o Lateral wave
o Subsurface
o Back-wall echo
o Mode converted (shear wave) echo
 Define top and bottom of part
 Note phase change
2.5 Basics of TOFD inspection
The TOFD (Time Of Flight Diffraction) is a ultrasonic method. TOFD method is based on
imperfections character to emit diffraction echoes when they interact with ultrasound. In
TOFD inspection two probes are used. One probe is used to send longitudinal ultrasound
to inspected material and one probe is used to receive this emitted ultrasound. In case this
send ultrasound interacts with imperfection, the tips of the imperfection emits diffraction
echoes. From the traveling time of these diffraction echoes the depth location of the
imperfection may be calculated.

2.6 A-Scan with no Defect Present

2.7 A-Scan with Defect Present
2.8 Lateral Wave
In general a weak lateral wave running between the two probes with the compression
velocity just below the surface of the metal is observed first. It obeys Fermat’s principle in
that a wave travelling between two pints takes the minimum time. As we shall later, for a
curved surface it will travel straight across the metal between the two probes. On material
with a surface cladding layer the velocity of sound in the cladding may be such that the
lateral wave travels most of the way in the material beneath the cladding. The lateral wave
is not a true surface wave but a bulk wave generated at the edge of the beam. The frequency
content of the lateral wave tends to be lower than the waves from the centre of the beam
(the beam spread is frequency related and the lower frequency component has therefor a
wider beam spread). For a true surface wave, the amplitude would decay exponentially
with distance from the inspection surface.
The lateral wave can be very weak for large probe separations and may not even be
recognisable.
Because of the basic pitch-catch probe arrangement the signals from the near surface region
are very compressed in time and these signals may be hidden beneath the lateral wave.

2.9 Back Wall Signal
A much larger signal reflected / diffracted from the back wall is observed after the lateral
wave because of the greater distance travelled. If the probe beams are only directed at the
upper part of the metal or there is no suitable back wall there may be no back wall signal.
2.10 Defect Signals

If a planar crack type crack is present in the metal in the overlapping beam of the two probes
diffraction signals from the top and bottom tips are seen between the lateral wave and the
back wall. These signals are generally much weaker than the backwall signal but stronger
than the lateral wave. If the defect has little height then the signals from top and bottom
may run into each other. Thus, the importance of a minimum number of cycles in the signals
in order to improve the resolution of the signals from the top and bottom of small defects.
Because the diffraction signals are so weak they cannot always be easily seen on a single A-
scan and it is only by displaying the successive A-scans from a scan in B-scan form that the
pattern of the diffraction signals becomes clear. Signal averaging is very important in these
situations because it improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
Again, this is why TOFD is very difficult with an analogue flaw detector where only a single
A-scan display is available.
2.11 Shear or Mode Converted Shear Signals

After the compression back wall signal a much larger signal generally appears and is a back
wall shear reflected signal and it is often mistaken for the compression back wall signal.
Between these signals other signals are generally observed due to mode conversion at a
defect into shear waves which then takes a longer tome for the signal to arrive at the receiver.
It is often very useful to collect signals in this region since genuine defect signal are repeated
at longer times and near surface defect signals may be clearer since they are spread out in
time more for the shear waves

2.12 Basic Principles of the TOFD Technique
TOFD: Typical Setup
2.13 A-Scan Signals
2.14 Some Typical Defects

2.14.01 Upper surface breaking crack
2.14.02 Back Wall Surface Breaking Crack

2.14.03 Horizontal Planar Defect (Lack of Inter-Run Fusion, Laminations)
2.15 Data Visualization

2.16 What do TOFD scans really look like?
TOFD images show the lateral wave and backwall, plus SW signals after and reflections
from all defects
2.17 Signals

 Lateral wave is clearly seen in a good TOFD scan.
 Typically used for calibration.
 On clean material, defects show up well.
 Backwall is always strong.
 Watch for perturbations.
2.18 Choosing an Angle

 Optimum Upper tip q ≈ 64°
 Optimum Lower tip q ≈ 68°
Angle selected is a compromise for

depth
May require selecting several “zones”

for best results

2.19 Depth calculation
Depth
In practice the depth calculation needs to take into account the extra delay in the measured
time due to the passage of the sound through the probe shoes. This delay is known as the
probe delay 2to microseconds. Thus the total transit time measured, t, is in practice given
by:
2.20 Signal Time

2.21 What is Probe Centre Separation (PCS)?
PCS is the distance between probe index points when aligned in Jig.
2.22 How is PCS determined?
The following factors are considered

 Focussing point
 Coverage of the volume of the test part

2.23 How is PCS Determined? General Applications
 Probe separation adjusted to focus centre of beams at 2/3 thickness
2.24 Calculation of PCS
PCS (2S) = 4/3 x d x tanθ = 1.33 x d x tanθ
d = thickness of the part

θ = Angle of the probe
2.25 Focus at a Point of Interest
For focusing at a predetermined depth
If (D= Depth of Interest)

then
PCS = 2D tan θ

2.26 Types of TOFD Scan
There are two types of scan. The initial scan generally used for detection is shown in
Figure 2-23(a) and is called the non-parallel or longitudinal scan because the direction of
scan is at right angles to the direction of the ultrasonic beam. The resultant scan is known as
a D-scan since it produces a cross section along the weld.
The second type of scan in Figure 2-23(b) and is called the transverse or parallel scan. The
direction of scan is parallel to the ultrasonic beam direction. The scan produced is called a
B-scan since it produces a cross section across the weld.

2.27 Transverse Scan
2.28 Parallel Scan

3. EQUIPMENT USED IN TOFD
An ultrasonic system for TOFD must be capable of providing a means of transmitting,

receiving, storing, displaying and analysing ultrasonic signals. As well, it must provide a
fixed spacing between the transmitting and receiving probes. Although not essential, it is
generally considered preferable to ensure that probe motion is encoded and the position of
the probe-pair maintained within prescribed tolerances with respect position such as the
weld centerline.
Basic components of TOFD configuration are shown in the schematic diagram shown in
Figure 3-1.
Probes are indicated in Figure 3-1 as being held in place with fixture. Noted on the probe
holder (but not drawn) is the encoder used for accurate positioning of the probes. The pulser
uses a co-axial cable directly to the transmitter probe and another co-axial cable connects
the receiver probe to the receiver amplifier and the amplified signals are then digested. The
encoder (when used) requires a voltage source and pulses generated in the encoder are
transferred and counted through the position control mechanism. These features (pulser
parameters, receiver parameters and encoded position) are collected in a computer and the
data when assembled in a sensible way can be stored and displayed on the monitor.

3.1 Digital Control
Basic portable flaw detector instruments have traditionally been described by illustrations
of simple block diagrams of analogue controlled instruments with analogue cathode ray
tubes (CRTs) for presentation of time vs. amplitude (A-scans).
Nowadays most electrical functions on the ultrasonic instruments are controlled by solid
state integrated circuits. By means of Boolean logic, these allow control of system inputs and
signal outputs. These are quantified in “packets” and this process is the foundation for
digital electronics. Incorporating digital control of analogue functions is now common on
many NDT instruments. Digital control allow ease of operation and even remote operation
via computer lines. Some aspects of UT are not practical or possible to make digital; input
power supply and the transmitted and received ultrasound are always analogue. However,
many input controls and some outputs are feasible as digital signals.
Digital controlled ultrasonic instruments have many advantages of the older analogue units;
 accuracy of time-base (timer or clock based instead of deflector plates)

 repeatability (exact settings can be recalled)
 storage of settings to memory (all parameters stored)
 speed of setup (simply recall stored parameters)
 signal processing
 display options, e.g. projection scans (tomographic presentation of data)
Parametric control of the components described in Figure 3-1 provides users with the ability
to optimise the performance of the TOFD inspection.
3.2 Pulsers and Receivers
Whether or not the parameters of the pulse to the transducer are digitally controlled or not
the pulse itself is an analogue signal. Similarly, the ultrasonic vibration that a transducer
senses from a reflection generates a voltage across the transducer that is also an analogue
response.
As a minimum, ultrasonic instruments have a single pulser and receiver. Quality of the
pulser and the receiver has a great effect on the information obtainable in ultrasonic testing.
The following will consider some of the options and their features.

3.3 Pulsers
Essentially all that is required to vibrate a piezoelectric transducer an alternating voltage.

However, characteristics of the pulse voltage will dictate how the element vibrates. This is
analogous to pushing a person on a swing. If pushes are applied at the natural frequency of
the loaded swing, large amplitudes can be achieved. If not, a rough, low-amplitude ride
results. In ultrasonic testing, maximum amplitude displacement is not always desirable.
When precise timing is needed (as would be for thickness tests on this wall material and
most TOFD applications) short duration pulses are better. Even a ‘ringy’ probe can be made
to dampen its vibration with the correct pulse characteristics.
Three pulse shapes are commonly used in ultrasonic flaw detection units; spiked bipolar
tone burst and square wave. These are illustrated in Figure 3-2.

3.3.1 Spike Pulsers
Figure 3-3 shows the components in a spike pulser.
when the capacitor discharges, the rapidly applied voltage across the transducer causes it
to vibrate. The purpose of the damping resistor (inductor) is used to increase the rate of
voltage decay. This is the damping available to the operator and is used to control the ring-
down time.
3.3.2 Tone Burst

Tone burst pulsers allow minimum energy output from transducers by adjusting the
frequency of the voltage applied. This can be done in several ways. A chopped voltage from
a waveform generator allows selection of pulses of different shapes, frequencies and
durations, as in Figure 3-4

Tone burst signals usually consist of several cycles. These are preferred for velocity
determination using interferometry. As well, since very high frequencies can be derived
using tone burst pulsing it is used in acoustic. Microscopy where frequencies in the
gigaHertz range are used.
3.3.3 Square Wave Pulsers

Square wave pulsers have become the preferred laboratory style of pulsers. Similar to the
spike pulser, the square wave pulser charges a capacitor which discharges across the
transducer. By holding the switch closed in the circuit for a controlled amount of time, then
rapidly restoring the pulse voltage to zero cause two displacements of the transducer. The
displacements at the transducer are opposite in phase so by timing the recovery voltage a
constructive interference can be effected between the original backward moving wave
reflected off the probe backing and the second impulse from the pulser.
Adjustment of pulse voltage and pulse width is possible with square wave pulsers making
them a versatile tool to optimise transducer performance. By choosing the best pulse width
to obtain constructive interference, less voltage need be applied to the probe thereby
reducing noise level. By pulsing at a frequency higher than that for maximum output,
bandwidth can be increased and lower frequency components reduced. Pulsing a
transducer at a frequency lower than that for maximum amplitude increases mechanical
damping and provides a sharper cleaner signal with little ring-on.
These features of the square wave pulse are illustrated in Figure 3-5.

In Figure 3-5 the square wave pulse shape is shown on the left. In the first case the pulse is
set to a fairly short duration, 12.375 nanoseconds (ns) and the applied voltage is -498 volts.
To the right of the received pulse shape is the signal of a copolymer transducer, nominally
30 MHz, using a glass target. Signal amplitude is relatively low implying that the transducer
output is not maximized. However, an advantage to this signal is that none of the low
frequency components of the transducer are excited and the bandwidth is high.
In the second case in Figure 3-5, the pulse width has been adjusted to provide a maximum
output from the transducer at 25.15 ns. Voltage applied is -547 volts, up slightly from the
first cast (in the first case voltage was the maximum possible for the pulse width applied).
Lower frequency components may be added to this signal compared to the first case, but
the bandwidth is reduced by the greater output near the resonant frequency.
In the third case the pulse has been increased to 51 ns and the voltage is essentially the same
as applied in the second case. Transducer output is reduced and the ring-on in virtually
eliminated. It is therefore possible to increase the damping of the transducers vibration by
decreasing the pulse length beyond the resonant frequency.

Significant output increase can be achieved using a bi-polar square wave pulser. This
provides a voltage that is first negative going (or positive going) and held to a maximum
for a time equivalent to half the natural period of the piezo-element and then reversing the
voltage and allowing it to swing back through zero volts to the same voltage maximum but
the opposite sign and then brining the voltage back to zero after holding to the maximum
for another half-cycle time. This would be comparable a single in the bi-directional square
wave pulser in Figure 3-4.
3.4 Receivers
According to Krautkramer (Ultrasonic Testing of Materials text), pulsers apply voltages of

100 to 1000 volts to the probe. However, received signals are three to four orders of
magnitude smaller (a few milli-volts to a few volts 0.001-1V). The causes a couple of
problems. One is the shock of the pulse voltage that is transferred to receiver in pulse-echo
mode of operation. The other problem is the need to amplify the relatively small signal from
flaws without amplifying noise. The latter is further complicated because the frequency of
the received signal may not be the same as the transmitted pulse envelope (accounting for
even smaller signals from the transducer).
When switched from pulse-echo to transmit-receive, there is no longer a physical electric

connection between the two components. Figure 3-6 illustrates this switching.

To obtain a signal capable of being displayed and subsequently processed the received
signal caused by the small transducer vibrations must be amplified. The amplification
process is quite involved and also includes filtering and sometimes attenuation.
First stage is the circuit protection that protects the preamplifier from the pulser voltage
when in pulse-echo mode. The preamplifier can use transistor type amplifiers that provide
about 20 to 40 dB of gain, frequency response of the preamplifier is usually broadband and
some high pass filtering may be incorporated to improve signal-to-noise ratio by eliminating
some radial mode components of the probe and line interference. Preamplifier bandwidths
are usually flat from about 1 MHz to 15MHz, and this is not operator adjustable.
Following the preamplifier, the signal is passed through a broadband attenuator. This
protects subsequent circuitry from saturation and it provides a means of calibrated
adjustment of signal height. Attenuation is usually equipped with coarse (20dB) and fine
(1dB) switching. Some portable instruments have been made that use very large
preamplifiers. As a result, even with maximum attenuation, signals from normal beam
inspections of plate could not be reduced to below full screen height.
Attenuated signals are passed on to RF amplifiers, which can be linear or logarithmic. Linear
amplifiers are those most commonly found on UT instruments. When using a linear
amplifier for the receiver, amplitude of a signal is proportional to receiver voltage.
However, receiver gain control is in dB increments, therefore signal amplification by 6dB
gain doubles the signal height. This limits the range of useful amplification to about 34 dB
(34 dB raises a 2% FSH signal to 100%). When a logarithmic amplifier is used, the scale is dB
linear so each increase of 1dB gain is 1% of the screen height. Expressed another way, the
dynamic range of this logarithmic amplifier is 6.3 times greater than the linear. Some
logarithmic amplifiers can exceed 100 dB dynamic range (i.e. 1 dB gain results in something
less than 1% FSH).
Frequency filtering can be applied to RF amplified signals. Normally bandpass filters are
used to eliminate noise from higher and lower frequency sources. These are selectable by
the operator and are labeled to correspond to the centre frequency of the filer. Normally the
bandpass filer is set to correspond to the nominal frequency of the probe. Wideband filters
are also available. Amplitude of signal compared to the best bandpass filter does not
significantly change when wideband is selected but the signal will often be noisier. See
Figure 3-7.

3.5 Gates
Essential to computer imaging of ultrasonic data is the ability to extract information from
regions of time that can be selected to monitor for signals in that time. The region being
monitored is said to be “gated”. Time along the gated region or amplitude within the gate
when a signal occurs or both time and amplitude can be gated. Alarm or recording
thresholds can be set for signals occurring in the gate.
Gates are as essential component in automating inspection systems. Gate positions are
usually facilitated by auxiliary controls. Gate positions on the screen are noted by extra trace
or markers on the A-scan display. Gate controls include start and end adjustments,
threshold setting (amplitude at which a signal must reach before alarmed or collected) and
positive or negative setting. If positive gating is used, a signal must exceed a set minimum
threshold. If negative gating is used a signal in the gate must fall below the threshold before
alarming. Typical of positive gating is signal amplitude monitoring for flaw detections.
Typical of negative gating is a coupling monitor using a through transmission signal that
alarms a gate of the coupling reduced and reduces the signal below a given threshold.
Figure 3-8 shows a digital A-scan display with 3 gates available. Data collection options for
gated regions may include time, amplitude and waveform. When time or amplitude is
selected a threshold is set by positioning the vertical level (amplitude) of the gate. When
Waveform information is selected there is no amplitude threshold and the entire waveform
over a specified time interval is collected. It is in fact waveform data that is collected in
TOFD.

3.6 Data Acquisition and Automated Systems
Collecting information about an object or condition is generally considered “data

acquisition”. This usually involves collecting information about one parameter with respect
to another, e.g. monitoring temperature against time. Data acquisition can be done simply
by an operator recording readings manually. In the temperature example the operator
would watch a thermometer (analogue, or digital) and record the values of both
temperature and time at various time intervals. (Records of a single parameter would have
little meaning unless they can be related to something else).
Scientific and engineering applications today require very large numbers of readings to be
taken and these with exacting precision. Several hundreds or thousands of readings over
several hours are easily accomplished using computers. When computers are incorporated
into a data acquisition process the process becomes automated. Computers can then be used
for not only collecting the readings, but also sorting it and subsequently analysing it.
In TOFD data acquisition consists of collecting A-scans. The other parameter collected is
position or a pseudo-position by collecting A-scans at a fixed clock rate (i.e. A-scans versus
time). Positional aspects of data acquisition are addressed late. Of significant importance to
the TOFD operator is the output seen on the display. This is made from the underling A-
scans collected and in fact must also include some means of displaying the A-scan making
up the B-scans seen in TOFD.

3.7 Instrument Outputs
Electrical data can be considered a “signal” or “waveform”. This is usually a voltage varying
with time. Signals can be either analogue or digital. Analogue signals are continuous and
can change an arbitrary amount in an arbitrarily small-time interval. Computers use digital
signals. These are discrete values in specified constant time intervals. If the digital signal
amplitude intervals are small- and the-time intervals are also small the resultant digital
waveform can closely approximate the analogue waveform. The difference in signal quality
between analogue and digital is demonstrated in Figure 3-9.
Figure 3-9 show the steps in converting the continuous analogue signal to a digital signal
by a computer.
Frame A shows the raw input as a continuously varying amplitude. Frame B shows how
the conversion must assign an off-set that will ensure the maximum negative displacement
is above the lowest values. The vertical division of the signals shows from minimum to
maximum there are 16 levels. In digital systems vertical divisions are multiples of 2 with
256 divisions being common. Sampling along the horizontal axis is time-based and a single
sample is taken at each time interval. This value is the peak or average and the closest whole
value that the interval corresponds to in the given time interval is the value assigned to that
point. Frame C shows the converted digital representation of the analogue signal. The
amplitude axis is left for reference and the amplitude of each sample is indicated at the
bottom of each bar. The number of bits that each bar indicates is easily converted to binary

code and read by the computer, e.g. the bar indicating 3 vertical bits would be read as 0011,
4 bits is 0100,7 bits is 0111.
The process of changing an analogue signal to the computer friendly digital signal is called
digitisation. The electronic device that accomplishes this is called an analogue-to-digital
converter (ADC.) and the associated electronics to accomplish this conversion is usually
incorporated on a printed circuit board inserted as a “card” in the computer so the hardware
is often called an A to D card. The digital signal that results from this conversion is
composed of digital values of a known range termed the scale factor and these values are
separated by a fixed time interval termed the sampling interval.
The reverse process is also used, i.e. converting digital signals to analogue signals. The
device that accomplishes this is called a digital-to analogue converter (DAC). Most people
are aware of the reverse process in entertainment devices whereby music information on a
CD or DVD diskette is played back on a set of speakers (the sound wave output. of the
speaker is always analogue).
Computers used in data acquisition come in a variety of sizes, formats and price ranges. At
one time three groupings applied; microcomputers, minicomputers and mainframes. These
were roughly based on size of memory. Today, the differences are not so clearly defined.
Except of situations where the amount of data to be collected is large and must be processed
quickly in addition to performing many other functions (multitasking), most inspection
systems can be automated with some form of a personal computer.
Integral to any automated data acquisition system is the data acquisition software. Data
acquisition software is used to collect data, analyse the data and display the results. Without
the ability to analyse and display the results of data collection the millions of bits of data
that can be collected would be unintelligible to the average operator. Processed data can be
output to monitors or printers in the form of tables, graphs or even be made to duplicate
strip chart or oscilloscope (A-scan) presentations.
Several varieties of specialised software exist in NDT inspection systems. These are often
used in conjunction with specialised instruments. The data acquisition software collects all
aspects of the signals and records all instrument parameters. Some software also addresses
motion control and positional information.
3.8 Memory and Digitisation Aspects
In the description of analogue to digital conversion it was noted that typically an 8 bit ADC
is used thereby providing 28 or 256 levels of vertical (resolution). The sampling rate of the
ADC will dictate the time interval along the A-scan that is captured and digitized. Flash A
to D converter boarder are also available in a variety of speeds typically 20 to 100 MHz but
slower and faster varieties are also available. If a 100 MHz ADC is used, sampling occurs
every 0.01μs. In pulse-echo this provides a resolution in steel of 0.016mm (shear) and 0.3mm

(long). The temporal resolution also dictates the quality of signal reproduced from the
analogue. Figure 3-10 shows an analogue signal from a 10MHz probe. Digitising at 100MHz
allows reasonable reproduction but at 20MHz the original analogue trace is just barely
recognizable (the dashed line of the analogue trace is supplied as reference, only the dots
would appear on the scope).
A minimum sampling rate of four times the nominal frequency of the probe used is
recommended. This will ensure the digitised amplitude will be within 3 dB of the analogue
value. Five times the nominal probe frequency is preferred for TOFD and if the digitised
sample is to be within less than 1 dB of the analogue signal amplitude.
E.g. for a 10MHz probe, an ADC rate of at least 50MHz is recommended for amplitude
critical work. As well, it will be seen by the operators that the quality of the recorded signal
at a higher ADC rate is much closer to the original (analogue) and makes for improved
signal characterisation.
Whereas temporal or distance resolution is solely a function of ADC rate, amplitude

resolution is a function of both ADC rate and number of levels of sampling e.g. number of
bits. For UT data acquisition systems 8 bit sampling is presently the most common and 10
bit, 12 bit and even higher bit rates are available.
An important aspect of digitised amplitude is the effect on dynamic range. As noted, the
most common Bit rate has been 8 been digitisation. Accuracy of amplitude assessment is
based on the number of divisions of sampling in the vertical direction. The term “bit rate”
is derived from binary treatment of data whereby there are a defined number of Bits to a
Byte. The groupings of bits into bytes may apply to 8,10,12 etc. in computer technology.
Here a “bit” is one of two options, i.e. the values ‘0’ or ‘1’. When the binary value (or 2) is

raised to the power of eight (8) it is considered 8-Bit. If it was raised to the power of 10 it
would be 10-Bit.
Computer-based ultrasonic systems have been increasing the Bit-rates used and the higher-
end units are sometimes using 12-bit digitisation. The product of the bit-rate is the number
of samples that the vertical (amplitude) range can be divided into E.g.
8 bit = 28 = 256 i.e. 256 intervals of vertical sampling (Pipe WIZARD)

10 bit = 210 = 1024 intervals of vertical sampling (Omniscan)
12 bit = 212 = 4096 intervals of vertical sampling (Tomo3)
This can be illustrated graphically. Figure 3-11 shows an RF waveform and a rectified
waveform presented on a graph with a colour code for amplitude on either side.
Signal amplitudes are usually stated in dB and the concept of dB is simply a ratio from
dB = 20 log10 h1/h2 where h1 and h2 are the relative amplitudes of two signals.
For a rectified signal in an 8Bit ADC unit the voltage bias places the zero point at the bottom
and shifts all points positive so dynamic range is 1/256 or 20 long 10 (1/256) = -48dB
The smallest % interval on the screen is (1/256) x 100 = 0.39%
For the RF signal the same 8 Bit ADC has no bias and signals are positive and negative. The
dynamic range is determined from the zero point to the maximum displacement (128).
1/128 or 20 long 10 (1/128) = 42dB.

NOTE: half the amplitude is -6dB so reducing the number of points by a factor of 2 reduces
the dB dynamic range by 6 (i.e. 48 – 6 = 42) and the smallest vertical screen interval is 0.8%.
When we use higher Bit-rates there is an interesting bi-product!
Large amplitude signals that are 100% or greater can, of course, not be assigned a real value.
they are simply considered “saturating”. This applies to analogue to digital displays. When
amplitude is an important factor and its absolute value is required this means that a re-scan
is required to assess the actual amplitude with respect to the reference level. In a 8-Bit
digitised rectified signal once the signal has reached the 256 level it is saturated. A signal
greater than 256 levels may be 101% or it may be >500% with respect to the full scale display.
With a 10-bit digitisation rate we would then have the vertical range of any signal divided
into 1024 equals intervals. This would allow us to collect signals at a lower receiver gain and
electronically “add gain” after the data had been collected. With 1024 amplitude levels we
have four times the resolution of the 8-Bit systems. That means we could calibrate at a
reference level of 20% (instead of the typical 80% on an 8-Bit system) and collect all the A-
scans at lower amplitude. Signals on our new 10-Bit display reaching 25% screen height
would have been 100% on the 8-Bit display. The likelihood of troublesome saturating signals
using the 10-Bit digitization would therefore be greatly reduced. Using the same assessment
of dynamic range as for the 8-bit system, the 10-bit system is seen to have a dynamic range
of 60dB for rectified signals.
Either the display or a numeric gated output can be used to indicate the greater amplitudes.
Figure 3-12 illustrates where the gates are used to measure the amplitude and even thought
the display no longer shows an increase in signal level, the operator can read the measure
amplitude as a digital numeric output. In the example, the digitisation is a 9-bit and the gate
output of amplitude shows that the signal on the extreme left is indicated as having a 200%
amplitude and occurs at 26.55mm. The next signal has a separate gate (green) and the signal
also saturates the “display” but not the gate level. That signal is indicated as having
amplitude of 176% and occurring at 39.03mm.

Figure 3-13 illustrates “soft gain” added to the display. The original scan is on the left and
a soft gain of 2dB is added to the view on the right.
Digitising an A-scan is the first step in constructing a B-scan. But each sample must be saved
to computer memory, therefore larger scan lengths and larger time of the gated period,
require more money than small scans and shorter gated times.
For the simple B-scan in Figure 3-13 used a 5 MHz TOFD beam probe on a 50mm thick plate
the gated time interval to include the mode converted signals was 10μs. To maintain good
quality A-scans we use the minimum ADC rate of 5 times the nominal probe frequency or
25MHz. The scan length was 275mm and a sample (full A-scan waveform) was taken every
1mm.

At 25 MHz ADC 25 samples are made each μs, so for the gated time of 10μs, 250 amplitude
samples will be recorded for each A-scan. At each point 8 bits of amplitude information are
collected (8 bits – 1 byte). Our B-scan is collected along the 275mm weld length so the data
generated would be :
250 x 1 x 1 x 275 = 68750 bytes (68.6 kB)
the first parameter is 250 points per A-scan

the second is 1 byte per sample point on each A-scan
the third is the number of A-scans per mm (1)
275 is the length of the scan in mm
Simply increasing the ADC rate to 100MHz to improve image quality increases the file size
by a factor of four.
In a multi-channel system where several B-scan (or D-scans) of TOFD scan are collected the
file size of even a simple linear scan parallel to the weld axis (with no rastering) could
quickly result in file sizes of several tens of MegaBytes (MB).
3.9 Data Processing
One of the added features of data acquisition systems is the ability to perform subsequent
processing of the stored signals. Since the advent of digital storage, several techniques have
been derived to enhance the information collected. This process is generally termed digital
signal processing (DSP).
Effectiveness of DSP relies on the quality of the captured signal. Quality determining factors
include;
1. how well transducer and data acquisition system are matched
2. sampling period
3. signal quantisation level
4. calibration
5. material attenuation
Any unwanted disturbance in the useful frequency band that is introduced to the signal is
considered noise. Noise may have several sources; the transducer itself, instrumentation,
spurious waves from scatter, geometry and mode conversions, as well as surrounding
electrical noise.

Defects may originate in areas where geometric configurations form stress raisers or
entrapments for chemicals that can lead to corrosion, cracking or both. The defect occurring
in this area may be corrupted or completely masked by the surrounding conditions.
Conversely, geometrics may be misinterpreted as defects. B-scans, C-scans or other imaging
displays allow defect detection by illustrating “the big picture”, where subtle trends are
noticeable that might not be evident in the static A-scan display.
In spite of the improved notice-ability afforded by imaging, spurious signals from noise
sources may still mask defects. Various techniques have been developed to enhance
pertinent information to suppress the masking effects of noise. Digital signal processing can
be generally grouped into two categories; one dimensional and two dimensional. One
dimensional processing is applied to the captured waveform and may be either filtering, or
spectrum analysis. Two-dimensional processing is concerned with enhancing spatial
structures of the image.
One dimensional DSP has been briefly touched on briefly. Use of fast Fourier transforms in
signal processing or simple averaging for increased signal to noise ratio may be used. When
noise is known to originate at a higher or lower frequency that the pertinent UT signal, a
bandpass filtering process can be applied. This selectively removes spurious components
from the A-scan.

A somewhat simpler form of processing is signal averaging. Signal averaging allows a flaw
signal to be drawn out of the background noise by the principle that a flaw signal is coherent
but noise is not. A coherent repetitive signal added to itself “n” times will increase by a
factor of “n” whereas noise added to itself ‘n’ times will increase by the square root of “n”.
After “n” iterations the signal to noise ratio of the averaged waveform is improved by √n.
Two dimensional DSP techniques are used to enhance spatial information. As such, two
dimensional DSP is applied to B-scan and C-scan images. It may be noted that B-scans and
C-scans contain no more information than the A-scans used to generate them. However,
they provide spatial relationships not possible to determine from isolated A-scans.
Of the processing methods used with B-scans, synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT)
is the best known. Transit-time for the ultrasonic beam to travel to and from a point is
hyperbolic function of the probe position and target depth. When the equation of this
hyperbola is known, A-scan signals can be shifted in time and added together. When a
defect is present constructive interference of the waveforms form a large signal. When no
defect is present the interference is destructive and the signal is small. This SAFT processing
may be performed in either two dimensions or three dimensions; however, three
dimensional SAFT processing requires considerable processing time.
An example of the improved signal-to-noise ratio and lateral resolution of SAFT processing
are shown in Figure 3-15. In Figure 3-15 three 1mm notches were scanned. The image on
the left is the raw data as it would appear in a B-scan and the image on the right is the result
of SAFT corrections to improve lateral resolution.

A variation of SAFT is the so-called ALOK (German – Amplitude and Laufzent Orts
Korwen). The expected travel time hyperbolic curves are used to improve signal-to noise
ratio of defects however, no synthetic focusing occurs.
3.10 Scanning Equipment
Scanning apparatus is required for positional information. Knowing a reflector exists in a

test piece is of little use unless its position can be determined. Position will be crucial in
ascertaining if the reflector is a flaw or geometry; if the reflector is determined to be a flaw
and it occurs in a weld, position will assist in evaluation and characterisation. Although
simple ruler measurements from surface references are often used for manual scanning,
indexing devices are usually used in mechanised scanning.
When parts are moved past a probe the relative position is rarely recorded precisely. Tube
inspection stations are often equipped with strip-chart recorders. Feed-speed and position
of the indication on the chart can be used to locate the indication. In pipe mills audio alarms
and paint sprayer markers alert the operator to when and where an echo breaks threshold.
The spray maker is located down stream of the probes and its operation is delayed from the
time of the alarm based on the travel speed of the pipe past the probes.

When probe movement is made over a fixed object, several options exist for mechanisation.
In order to fix some sort of reference position, a probe holder and associated framework is
required. Position may be provided by some form of encode and the probe moved by hand.
Alternatively, movement may be facilitated by motors on the framework and again,
encoders may provide positional information.
3.11 Limitations of Mechanised Scanning
Not all aspects of inspection need be mechanised. There will always be cases where manual
techniques are more cost effective although given unlimited funding all manual scanning
could be mechanised to some degree.
But it should be noted that mechanical limitations might apply to mechanised systems. The
most common of the limitations would be scanning speed. Even when a computer and
ultrasonic systems can produce and collect the data at high rate of travel speed there may
be mechanical impediments to moving the probe(s) at the maximum speed that can be
computer collected. On long scan gantries the gantry support may set up vibrations and
shake the probe so that coupling path or coupling quality is reduced. Or the scanner may
simply shake some components loose. The risk of damage by something as simple as a small
speck of weld spatter may be greater at higher scan speeds than at lower speeds. An
example of technology advances may be seen in the pipeline girth weld inspections.
Older systems in the 1980s were based on the pulser PRF and were hard pressed to scan a
weld at more than 40mm/2. Today, the phased array systems can scan a 12 zone weld and
collect full waveform scans for TOFD., and 8 full waveform B-scans at more than double the
speed of the older systems (now about 80-100mm/s.) This is all the more impressive when
the file size is considered. File sizes of the older systems were on the order of 100kB and
provided only amplitude and time information, any projection scans (B-scans) were only
“images” so were given the term mappings as they did not preserve the waveform and no
TOFD was being provided. The modern system typically collects over 1,000 times more data
(10-15MB) at twice the speed.
3.12 Scanning Speed
ADC rates have already been discussed and, if large gated times are required for B-scans
the ability of the computer CPU to process the information may present a speed limitation.
If the computer has not had enough time between samples blank lines on the B-scan result
indicating missed data points.
However, computer CPU is not the only limiting factor. Even if computers are not used for
data acquisition, another limiting factor is the pulse repetition frequency. Response times of
the recording devices such as strip-chart recorders may requires several pulse signals to
ensure the true maximum amplitude is indicated. Therefore, a probe must be in the vicinity

of a reflector or diffractor for a time sufficient for the recording equipment to respond. This
will be, in part, determined by the size of the beam and by the size of the “calibration” or
minimum target dimension. Static calibration may indicate a gain setting to achieve the
required signal amplitude but when a dynamic run is made over the calibration at too high
a speed, the amplitude recorded will be something less than that for the static calibration.
Empirically established scanning speeds may be found or specification or code can stipulate
maximum speeds based on probe or beam size and PRF.
An example of specification dictated speed states……. scanning velocity Vc shall be

determined by
Where Wc is the narrowest -6dB width at the appropriate operating distance of the
transducer determined by design requirements and PRF is the effective pulse repetition
frequency for each transducer. This example requires 3 firings within the 6dB beam width.
In a system where many probes are sequenced via a multiplexer the PRF is divided amongst
the total number of probes. Although many units have PRF’s of 2kHz, when 10 probes are
used in the system, the effective PRF at each probes is only 200 Hz.
Improved technology makes PRF considerations irrelevant. With the digital control of data
acquisition systems the entire process from firing the element (s) to collecting, displaying
and saving the received signals is all computer controlled. There is still a master clock and
the computer sequences all activities off this clock.
In an encoded system the scanner is advanced by the motor (controlled via a motor control
unit and a communication link via the motor control card on the controlling computer). The
motion causes the encoder to turn and the pulses generated indicate a specified number of
pulses per unit distance. As the encoder indicates the start of the 1mm acquisition interval,
all functions in the sequence commence;
1. the computer is instructed to record the encoded positions (calibrated in

millimetres, or perhaps inches, as referenced from a specified origin)
2. the computer is instructed load the display on the monitor.
3. next fire the transmitters in the correct order and delay.
4. arrange the receivers to receive the pulse from the transmitted signals
5. apply the correct receiver, gains to the applicable channels
6. collect the analogue waveform in the gated time intervals.
7. digitise the amplitude information from the gate.,
8. store the digitise waveform to memory.
9. repeat the above steps for all channels (when multiple TOFD is applicable)
10.print one line of displayed data to the monitor
11.wait for the next 1mm increment pulse from the encoder and begin again

Many more small checks and functions are carried out but the overall effect this tries to
convey is that my functions are occurring based on the initiating pulse from the encoder.
Some systems have scan speeds around 100mm/sec. This means that the sequence of events
that are required to carry out all the steps in a single millimetre are repeated 100 times each
second. There is still a limit to what a computer can do in a short period of time and if the
scanning speed is too fast to complete all the functions required in that 1mm interval then
ALL or SOME of the information for that step is lost. In pulse-echo methods using a colour
palette this is seen as a black line on some displays or white lines on others. On the TOFD
B-scan the same effect (missing data) is seen as a zero amplitude signal on the display.
However, since this display is a grayscale the zero value is a medium grey colour as shown
in Figure 3-16.
The equation
does not apply for encoder –triggered data acquisition systems. Instead, the fact that each
firing of the pulser is dictated by the encoded distance-interval means that the operator
needs to determine the dimension of the 6dB beam width (WC) and ensure that the encoded
sample interval is less than 1/3 that distance to conform to the intend to the specification
requirement.

3.13 Encoders
A rotary optical encoder is a sensor that uses light to sense the speed, angle and direction of
a rotary shaft. A linear encoder reads a linear strip instead of a disk to provide the same
information for linear motion. Optical encoders use light instead of contacts to detect
position, so they are inherently free from contact wear and the digital outputs are bounceless
(no contact bounce). Accuracy of an optical encoder is as good as the code wheel. The code
wheel patterns are created using precision digital plotters and cut using either a punching
system or a laser, each guided by closed loop precision vision system.
The light source used for encoders is usually a point source LED, rather than a conventional
LED or filament. Most optical encoders are transmissive type, meaning that the light is
collimated light into parallel light rays and passes through the disk (or strip) pattern. The
image of the pattern is detected using a phased array monolithic sensor and converted to
TTL (transistor to transistor logic) digital. Quadrature outputs. Reflective type encoders
bounce collimated light off a patterned reflective code wheel. Fitting all of the electronics of
a reflective encoder onto one side of the code wheel makes it a more compact design that
transmissive types.
Figure 3-17 illustrates the components in an encoder using photodiodes to produce a

quadrature encoder output which enables this encoder to display both distance and
direction. In this case direction is determined via phase difference between pulses.
Figure 3-17 Optical Encoder Components
Most incremental encoders have a second set of pulses that is offset (out of phase) from the
first set of pulses, and a single pulse that indicates each time the encoder wheel has made
one complete revolution. If the A pulse occurs before the B pulse, the shaft is turning
clockwise, and if the B pulse occurs before the A pulse, the shaft is turning counter
clockwise. The C pulse occurs once per revolution. Figure 3-18 illustrates the pulse pattern
of a quadrature encoder that provides the direction information (with channel C being the
‘reference’ pulse).

Figure 3-18 Optical Encoder Quadrature Pulse Patterns
Automated scanning systems incorporating optical encoders require calibration. This

involves moving the scanner over a specific distance and counting the number of pulses.
Then a calibration factor is used (number of pulses per millimetre). Because the contact point
of these encoders on the test surface can eventually result in wear, there is a requirement for
periodic verification of the number of pulses in a single rotation of the wheel.
Other positional indicating devices include potentiometers and resolvers.
Asynchronous versus synchronous Systems
Most ultrasonic technicians having used a traditional mono-element probe in pulse echo
mode, are familiar with the concept of prf (pulse repetition frequency). This is the rate that
the ultrasonic instrument pulses the probe. In a multi-channel system where several probes
may be used PRF controlled systems require high clock speeds to ensure that all the
channels are fired in the allowed sample interval. When the encoder position pulses are
interlaced with the ultrasonic pulses in such a system the ultrasonic PRF and Position pulses
are said to be asynchronous. This is illustrated in the upper portion of Figure 3-19.

When using an ultrasonic system for the TOFD ultrasonic pulses it is preferable that the
system be synchronous. This is perhaps even more desirable when the system is multi-
channel. Then the encoder-pulse triggering the events must fire, acquire and process all the
channels prior to the next encoder pulse.
Data acquisition by the asynchronous systems often uses computer algorithms to select the
maximum, minimum or average values of the gated information received by the ultrasonic
instrument between encoder pulses. That value is then transferred to the computer for data
display (and to memory). Synchronous systems have only a single firing (unless averaging
is used) for each channel so the single gated value (per channel or focal law) is transferred
to memory for display.
A “rule of thumb” is often used in ultrasonic data acquisition systems. This requires that at
least three firings of the ultrasonic pulse for each channel is had over a distance equal to the
6dB dimension of the beam. In fact, some Codes or Standards actually state this is in
equation format:
This was addressed when considering scanning speeds. As noted there, the equivalent is
maintained for synchronous systems by having three samples within the 6dB beam width.
Therefore for ‘synchronous or “fire on position” systems, 1 sample every 1mm will achieve
this if the beam width is 3mm or greater. This is suitable for pulse-echo techniques; however,
for TOFD the beam is very wide and it may seem adequate to pulse less often (e.g. once
every 2 or 3mm). But this tends to pixelate the B-scan image (i.e. make it appear blocky due

to the large jumps between samples) and subtle trends that may help characterise
indications may be lost if the sample interval along the encoded axis is greater than 1mm.
TOFD equipment may be limited to the barest of essentials.
 1 Probe pair
 Probe holder (to maintain probe spacing
 Pulser-receiver (basic)
 Data acquisition system (computer with data display)
Figure 3-20 illustrates the basics using a laptop computer as the acquisition /control
computer, a single T/R pulser-receiver and a probe pair and basic holder to keep the distance
between them constant.
More extensive systems would include:
 1 or more Probe pairs

 Probe holder (to maintain probe spacing)
 Pulser-receiver(s)
 Pre-amp system
 Data acquisition system (computer with data display)
 Encoder(s)
 Irrigation system for couplant
 DSP data analysis software

These features are illustrated in Figure 3-21.

4 EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
4.1 Ultrasonic equipment and display
As specified in EN583-6, Ultrasonic equipment used for the TOFD technique shall, as a
minimum, comply with the requirements of EN 12668-1, EN 12668-2 and EN 12668-3. In
addition, the following requirements shall apply:
 the receiver bandwidth shall, as a minimum, range between 0,5 and 2 times the
nominal probe frequency at 26 dB, unless specific materials and product classes
require a larger bandwidth. Appropriate band filters can be used;
 the transmitting pulse can either be unipolar or bipolar. The rise time shall not exceed
0,25 times the period corresponding to the nominal probe frequency;
 the unrectified signals shall be digitized with a sampling rate of at least four times
the nominal probe frequency;
 for general applications combinations of ultrasonic equipment and scanning

mechanisms shall be capable of acquiring and digitizing signals with a rate of at least
one A-scan per 1 mm scan length. Data acquisition and scanning mechanism
movement shall be synchronized for this purpose;
 to select an appropriate portion of the time base within which A-scans are digitized,
a window with programmable position and length shall be present. Window start
shall be programmable between 0 and 200 ms from the transmitting pulse, window
length shall be programmable between 5 and 100 ms. In this way, the appropriate
signals (lateral or creeping wave, backwall signal, one or more mode converted
signals) can be selected to be digitized and displayed;
 digitized A-scans should be displayed in amplitude related grey or single-colour

levels, plotted adjacently to form a B-scan. for typical B-scans of non-parallel and
parallel scans respectively. The number of grey or single-colour scales should at least
be 64;
 for archiving purposes, the equipment shall be capable of storing all A-scans or B-
scans (as appropriate) on a magnetic or optical storage medium such as hard disk,
floppy disk, tape or optical disk. For reporting purposes, it shall be capable of making
hard copies of A-scans or B-scans (as appropriate);
 the equipment should be capable of performing signal averaging.

In order to achieve the relatively high gain settings required for typical TOFD-signals, a
preamplifier may be used, which should have a flat response over the frequency range of
interest. This pre-amplifier shall be positioned as close as possible to the receiving probe.
Additional requirements regarding features for basic and advanced analysis of
discontinuities.
4.2 Ultrasonic probes
Ultrasonic probes used for the TOFD technique shall comply with at least the following
requirements:
 number of probes: 2 (transmitter and receiver);

 type: any suitable probe (see 4.5);
 wave mode: usually compression wave; the use of shear wave probes is more
complex but may be agreed upon in special cases;
 both probes shall have the same centre frequency within a tolerance of ±20 %;
frequency: for details on probe frequency selection, see 4.5;
 the pulse length of both the lateral wave and the backwall echo shall not exceed two
cycles, measured at 10 % of the peak amplitude;
 pulse repetition rate shall be set such that no interference occurs between acoustical
signals caused by successive transmission pulses.
4.3 Scanning mechanisms
Scanning mechanisms shall be used to maintain a constant distance and alignment between
the index points of the two probes.
An additional function of scanner mechanisms is to provide the ultrasonic equipment with

probe position information, in order to enable the generation of position-related B-scans.
Information on probe position can be provided by means of e.g. incremental magnetic or
optical encoders, or potentiometers.
Scanning mechanisms in TOFD can either be motor or manually driven. They shall be
guided by means of a suitable guiding mechanism (steel band, belt, automatic track
following systems, guiding wheels etc.).
Guiding accuracy with respect to the centre of a reference line (e.g. the centre line of a weld)
should be kept within a tolerance of ±10 % of the probe index point separation.

4.4 Equipment set-up procedures
4.4.1 General
Probe selection and probe configuration are important equipment set-up parameters. They
largely determine the overall accuracy, the signal-to-noise ratio and the coverage of the
region of interest of the TOFD technique.
The set-up procedure described in this subclause intends to ensure:
 sufficient system gain and signal-to-noise ratio to detect the diffracted signals of
interest;
 acceptable resolution and adequate coverage of the region of interest;
 efficient use of the dynamic range of the system.
4.5 Probe choice and probe separation
4.5.1 Probe selection
In this clause typical probe arrangements are given for TOFD in order to achieve good
detection capabilities on both thin and thick specimens. Note that these arrangements are
not mandatory and that the exact requirements to achieve a specification should be checked.
For steel thicknesses up to 70 mm a single pair of probes can be used. The recommended
probe selection parameters to achieve sufficient resolution and adequate coverage are
shown in Table 4.1 for three different ranges of wall thicknesses.

For thicknesses greater than 70 mm the wall thickness shall be divided into more than one
inspection zone, each zone covering a different depth region. Table 4.2 shows the
recommended centre frequencies, crystal sizes and nominal probe angles to achieve
sufficient resolution and adequate coverage for thick materials from 70 mm up to 300 mm.
These zones can be inspected simultaneously or separately.
4.5.2 Probe separation
The maximum diffraction efficiency occurs when the included angle is about 1208. The
probes should be arranged such that the (imagined) beam centre lines intersect at about this
angle in the depth region where discontinuities are anticipated/sought.
Deviations of more than 2358 or +458 from this value may cause the diffracted echoes to be
weak and should not be used unless detection capabilities can be demonstrated.
4.6 Time window setting
Ideally, the time window recorded, should start at least 1 ms prior to the time of arrival of
the lateral wave, and should at least extend up to the first backwall echo. Because mode
converted echoes can be of use in identifying defects, it is recommended that the time
window recorded also includes the time of arrival of the first mode-converted backwall echo
signal.
As a minimum requirement the time window recorded shall at least cover the depth region
of interest, as shown e.g. in Tables 1 and 2. Where a smaller time window is appropriate
(e.g. to improve sizing precision), it will be necessary to demonstrate that imperfection
detection capabilities are not impaired, for instance by using representative flaws or
diffracting artificial defects in a reference block as described in 4.11.

4.7 Sensitivity setting
The probe separation and the time window shall be set to those values that will be used in
the subsequent inspection.
The aim is to make sure that the signals from discontinuities are within the range of the
digitizer and that the limiting noise is acoustic rather than electronic.
The equipment settings (electronic noise suppression and system gain) are to be adjusted
such that the electronic noise prior to the arrival of the lateral wave indication is at least 6
dB lower in amplitude than within the region of the timebase after the arrival of the lateral
wave. The latter should be set to approximately 5 % of the amplitude scale.
The sensitivity setting can now be checked making use of representative flaws or diffracting
artificial defects in a reference block as described in 4.11. The results can be used to justify
reducing the gain setting or give warning that the signal-to-noise ratio is insufficient.
4.8 Scan resolution setting
It is recommended to record one A-scan per millimeter of probe displacement.
4.9 Setting of scanning speed
Scanning speed shall be selected such that it is compatible with the requirements
4.10 Checking system performance
It is recommended that system performance is checked before and after an inspection by

recording and comparing a limited number of representative A-scans.

4.11 System Verification Reference blocks
4.11.1Thickness requirements
4.11.1.2 Maximum thickness

The thickness of the reference block should be chosen such that the beam angle at the bottom
of the reference block is not smaller than 40°, in order to avoid having a zone where there is
no diffraction at the bottom of the block. According to the following drawing this maximum
thickness (Tmax) can be calculated as follows:
S = Z tan α and S = Tmax tan 40° =>Z tan α = Tmax tan 40° =>Tmax = (Z tan α)/tan 40°
where Z is the focus point and α is the beam angle of the chosen set-up.
For example, when t = 35 mm and α = 60° then with Z = ⅔ t = 23.3 mm then:
Tmax= (23.3 X tan 60°)/tan 40° = 48.1 mm

4.11.1.3 Minimum thickness
The minimum thickness of the reference block should be chosen such that the beam
intersection point (Z) of the chosen set-up is always within the reference block, see
Figure4.2.
This means: Tmin ≥ Z.
4.11.2 Reference reflectors
For a thickness between 6 mm and 25 mm at least 3 reference reflectors are recommended.
The reflectors may be machined in one or more blocks:

 One notch at the bottom of the block with length X and height h (Table 4.3);
 One side-drilled hole located at 4 mm below the surface, with a diameter of 2 mm
and a length of 30 mm;
 One side-drilled hole located at 1/2 t below the surface, with a diameter Dd (Table
4.3) and a length of 45 mm. Alternatively a notch at the scanning-surface with a depth
of 1/2 t, a tip angle of 60° (see Figure 4.3), a width w (Table 4.4) and a minimum
length of 40 mm may be used.

For a thickness > 25 mm at least 5 reference reflectors are recommended. The reflectors may
be machined in one or more blocks:
 one notch at the bottom of the block with length X and height h (Table 4.3);
 one side-drilled hole located at 4 mm below the surface, with a diameter of 2 mm and
a minimum length of 30 mm.
 three side-drilled holes located at 1/4 t, 1/2 t and 3/4 t below the surface, with a
diameter Dd (Table 4.4) and a length l (Table 4.5). Alternatively, three notches at the
scanning surface with depths of 1/4 t, 1/2 t and 3/4 t, a tip angle of 60° (see Figure 4.3),
a width w (Table 4.4) and a minimum length of 40 mm may be used.
The tolerances for all the dimensions are as follows:

 diameter: ± 0,2 mm
 length: ± 2 mm
 angle: ± 2°

4.11.3 Typical reference blocks

4.11.4 ASME REFERENCE BLOCK
General Notes:
(a) Holes shall be drilled and reamed 2 in. (50 mm) deep minimum, essentially parallel to
the examination surface.
(b) Hole Tolerance. The tolerance on diameter shall be ± 1⁄32 in. (± 0.8 mm). The tolerance
on location through the block thickness shall be ± 18 in. (± 3 mm).
(c) All holes shall be located on the same face (side) of the block and aligned at the
approximate center of the face (side) unless the indication from one reflector affects the
indication from another. In these cases, the holes may be located on opposite faces (sides) of
the block.
(d) When the weld is broken up into multiple zones, each zone shall have a Tz /4 and Tz 3/4
side-drilled hole, where Tz is the zone thickness.

5. TOFD DEPTH, RING-TIME ISSUES AND ERRORS
In Chapter 2 we briefly touched on the loss of resolution that occurs in the lateral wave due
to the ring time effects. This was one of the limitations of TOFD. Most users of the TOFD
(time of flight diffraction) technique are familiar with the loss of information that occurs
immediately under the test surface. This is sometimes referred to as the lateral wave dead
zone. It results due to the fact that the pulse ring-time limits the resolution of flaws
immediately below the surface for a time approximately equal to the depth equivalent to
that ring time for the probe configuration used.
However, some users of TOFD seem to be unaware that the same effect occurs at every
diffraction interface below the surface and a similar effect is had from the backwall reflection
boundary.
These three “dead zones” are identified and approximated in the EN standard EN-583-6.
No special corrections are made for wedge angle variations with depth and the assumption
is made that the indication is at the midpoint of the Probe centre Spacing (PCS), the
approximations are generally adequate for most applications.
Estimations of resolution limits of TOFD are one of the most important considerations when
using TOFD with fracture-mechanics based acceptance criteria. When using of TOFD to
estimate flaw size (height) the smallest resolvable flaw is a function of the PCS, probe
frequency and damping quality and the depth of the flaw below the surface. Failure to
understand this could lead to grossly overestimating the capabilities of a system.
Failure to understand this has resulted in impossible expectations of TOFD capability. E.g.
a specification issued for a large corporation required extreme sizing capabilities on the
inside surface of a putatively critical component nearly 40mm thick. Small (<0.5mm height)
surface breaking flaws were considered critical and TOFD was identified as the means to
both “detect” and “size” any flaws on that surface. This seems to have been the result of an
assumption that the improved time resolution as one approaches the far wall would allow
sizing and detection on this minute scale. This assumption optimistically ignored the ring-
time limits. Even when using a 10 MHz probe with a 45° L wave, detection and sizing
capability of <0.5mm would be unlikely.
5.1 Depth and Ring-time Calculations
The calculations of the three dead zones are derived from relatively simple trigonometric
equations. Figure 5-1 illustrates the basic layout and associated A-scan. It is assumed that
the ultrasonic energy enters and leaves the specimen at the index points of probes. When a
flaw is assumed to be midway between the two probes, depth “d” to the flaw is given by:

Where c is the acoustic velocity, t the time in the metal, t0 the time in the wedge and S is half
the probe spacing (i.e. half the PCS).
Depth d2 is calculated using the same formula as used for the upper tip so we need only
subtract the depths to determine the flaw height (Figure 5-2). This is then given as
h = d2 – d1
The same parameters can be used to identify the limits of resolution in TOFD. The lateral
wave is seen as a pulse. This pulse requires a set amount of time based on its frequency. The
start of the pulse may be considered the entry point or zero depth.

Therefore, the time required to complete that cycle (or 1.5 cycles) is seen as the lateral wave
and had a depth in the metal equivalent to the pulse duration. This is shown in Figure 5-3.
To calculate the equivalent depth in the test piece we need only solve Pythagorean’s
theorem using the acoustic velocity and pulse duration to determine the travelled
equivalent distance for the lateral wave (correcting for the fact that it is the total distance
from transmitter to receiver, and half the PCS.
The ring time near the test surface is then defined by the pulse-duration
tp is the pulse duration to where the amplitude is, where 10% of peak
S is half the PCS
c is the velocity of sound of the mode used
From the equation we can see that reduction of lateral wave dead zone is by decreasing PCS
or use probes with shorter pulse duration (and to some extent a higher angle).
Backwall signals present another source of lost information again due to the ring time of the
pulse. However, because the angle made at the backwall is smaller, the equivalent depth for
the same time is less. The equation to calculate the backwall dead zone uses that fact that
the reflection of the pulse uses up the equivalent depth and subtracts the wall thickness
from the total pulse-duration equivalent depth.
The equivalent depth ring time near the backwall surface is defined by the equation

Reduction of the backwall dead zone is by decreasing PCS or use probes with shorter pulse
duration (and to some extent a smaller angle)
Spatial resolution defines ability to resolve upper and lower tip signals (between the lateral
wave and backwall);
Where:
tp is the pulse duration to where the amplitude is the time –of-flight at depth d
Resolution increases with increasing depth, and can be improved by decreasing the probe
separation or the acoustic pulse length. If the flaw is less than the ring time at the depth
calculated it will not be possible to provide an estimate of flaw size based on the TOFD
principles of much less than the ring time equivalent depth.
For the most part TOFD probes are relatively broadband, i.e. have short pulse durations on
the order of a single cycle or 1.5 cycles. Since these are approximations for ideal conditions
they are to be used as a guide only.
A worked example is given below. The data in Table 5-1 illustrates the parameter entry
(yellow) and calculated values (green) for a test setup on a 32mm wall thickness. The user
must decide the depth at which the flaw is located to determine the depth resolution. In the
example in Table 5-1 this is 12mm.

Worked example of Dead zones
As an aid to visualising the limits of resolution a simple plot is provided. This is illustrated
in Figure 5-5 for the setup defined in Table 5-1. The three ring times are denoted by the
coloured lines extending back to the scale on the left. The red line indicates the lateral wave
dead zone, the yellow lines indicate the resolution that may be expected for a flaw at the
specified depth i.e. the minimum flaw height to see a separate upper and lower tip signal)
and the blue line indicates the height above the opposite surface that a flaw must exceed
before it is reasonably detected as separate from the backwall echo.

To validate the calculations the following images in Figure 5-6 are provided. The scan is of
a weld section 32mm thick using a 7MHz probe with a 100mm PCS.

5.2 Flaw Position Errors
Due, primarily to uncertainties in the main parameters in the equations above, there is a
potential for error in depth estimates. Uncertainties exist for timing, acoustic velocities, PCS
and the lateral position of the flaw (i.e. the actual position of the flaw between the
transmitter and received probes). These uncertainties can be reasonably approximated and
the potential error in depth that could result can be quantified.
5.3 Timing Error
Timing errors result from the fact that our timebase becomes digitised in order to display
data on the computer. Error in timing is primarily a function of the digitization rate. for
100MHz ADC rate the error would be plus or minus one sample interval, or 10ns. For
50MHz the error band increases to ±20 nos.
The depth error due to timing inaccuracy is quantified by the equation:
δd= c δt [d2 + S2]1/2/2d
Where “c” is the acoustic velocity

“d” the depth to the flaw
𝛿t the timing uncertainty
“S” half the PCS
This incorporates the timing uncertainty into the Pythagorean equation so the depth error
due to timing uncertainty is also a function of flaw depth.
Using the parameters in our example in Figure 5-6 the error in depth estimate at 16mm
assumed depth for a digitization rate of 50MHz (i.e. 20ns per sample interval) would result
in a depth uncertainty of 0.2mm.
5.4 Acoustic Velocity Error
Acoustic Velocity is another source of uncertainty. It has been assumed by most users that
the acoustic velocity for the compression mode in steel is 5920m/s. In fact, the acoustic
velocity can vary depending on the alloy and rolling or casting conditions. Even basic low
alloy carbon steel can vary from about 5800m/s to 6100 m/s. or more. This is further
complicated by the anisotropy of some steels. This implies that velocities can change with
changes in direction (e.g. one velocity is observed at 300 refracted angle and a different
velocity is measured at say 700 refracted angle. Even when the assessments are relatively
accurate there is some uncertainty and ±30m/s is about as accurate as most measurements
can be made.

The effect on depth estimate error due to just acoustic velocity error is given by the equation:
δd= δc [d2 + S2 – S(d2 + S2 )1/2]/cd
Where
“c” is the acoustic velocity
“d” the depth to the flaw
δc the acoustic velocity uncertainty
“S” half the PCS
Using the parameters in our example in Figure 5-6 the error in depth estimate at for a
possible error in velocity assumption of 50m/s from the assumed 5920m/s would result in a
depth uncertainty of 0.07mm at an assumed depth of 16mm.
Although velocity can vary with angle in a specimen (called anisotropy) the effect is not
usually significant in TOFD. Velocity of a material can easily be determined using the
ultrasonic instrument in a pulse-echo mode with a 0° probe. This is done by accurately
measuring a section with parallel faces using a vernier calliper and obtaining the pulse-eco
time between the backwall and next multiple using a digitisation rate of 100MHz. Velocity
is then obtained by
where:
V = velocity
d = sample thickness (physically measured)
t = time interval (measured by pulse-echo)
Using these simple tools it is reasonable to expect thickness to be accurately assessed to

within +/-0.01mm and time +/-0.01µs. This provides velocity accuracy of approximately
+/-50m/s.
5.5 PCS Error
Probe Centre Spacing (PCS) might be considered an assumed absolute value. However, this
setting is usually set by a ruler being slid under the probes and a simple alignment of the
exit point marks with the ruler markings. Parallax error is one source of error here as is
rounding of the value. Another source of error arises during the scanning. The probes
mounted in holders are often seen to move slightly due to mechanical “springing”. The
probes can be seen to be moving relative to each other. These motions can be of two basic
forms; closer and farther apart (especially when weld caps are large and can catch the
probes) and skewing (one probe centreline does not align with the probe opposite). The
skewing may occur due to rough surfaces or mechanical recoil as the probe pair is slide

along the weld causing one probe to be slightly ahead or behind the other. These effects are
easily seen as a wandering of the lateral wave.
The effect on depth estimate error due to PCS variation is given by the equation.
δd= δS [(d2 + S2)- S]/d
Here only the depth estimate and the PCS are involved in the error calculation. In this
equation “d” is the depth to the flaw, δS the error (variation) in PCS and “S” half the PCS.
Using the parameters in our example in Figure 5-6 the error in depth estimate for a possible
variation of 1mm from the assumed 100mm would result in a depth uncertainty of 0.14mm
at an assumed depth of 16mm. This parameter has a fairly significant effect on results.
Variations of 3-4mm due to mechanical springing are not uncommon and depth variation
of a millimetre or more can easily result depending on the depth of the flaw.
5.6 Lateral Position Error
The last source of error we discuss occurs due to the fact that there is some uncertainty as
to the flaws exact position between the probes. This is considered “lateral positioning
uncertainty”.
This lateral uncertainty is given the notation δy and is best explained by the illustration in
Figure 5-7 where it is seen as the displacement of the actual flaw from the theoretical
centerline between the probe exit points.

Depth error estimation then incorporates the lateral uncertainty using equation:
δd = (c2t2 – 4S2)1/2 (δy2/c2t2) / (1 -4δy2/c2t2 )1/2
In a weld inspection there is some practical limit to how far off the centerline the flaw might
occur. Typically this will be not further than the heat affected zone (HAZ) dimension. For
our example in Figure 5-6, the error in depth estimate for a flaw 10mm from the weld
centreline would be 0.25mm at an assumed depth of 16mm.
Constant Time Locus
Related to the lateral position uncertainty is a concept called the “constant time locus”. For
a given depth, the time taken for the sound to travel from the transmitter to the flaw tip to
the receiver is a minimum when the flaw is midway between the transmitter and receiver.
However, as a result of the lateral position uncertainty, that time value “t” could be
experienced by any combination of sound paths t = t1 + t2 (see Figure 5-8) where t1 and t2
are the path lengths from the transmitter to the flaw tip and the flaw tip to the receiver
respectively.
In Figure 5-8 it is seen that this is constant time traces out a semi-ellipse with focuses at the
probe exit points. This implies that, “theoretically”, a flaw seen on the A-scan at a given time
could have originated from any point along that locus. However, there is a practical limit to
this set of points. In order for a flaw to be detected it need be located in the effective beam
of the probe. This then limits the lateral position off-set that the flaw MIGHT have. In figure
5-8 the shaded region indicates the effective beam area where a flaw might be detectable. If
the flaw was located at the mid-point between the transmitter and receiver it would have a
maximum assessed depth for that time. If the flaw was off-set to one edge or another in the
beam its actual depth would be slightly less (as calculated using the depth error estimation
for the lateral uncertainty equation).

The practical observation in this theory relates to how the parallel scan is used in TOFD.
Since lateral position uncertainty prevents us assessing the true depth of a flaw with just a
non-parallel scan it will be necessary to perform a parallel scan to improve depth estimates.
Once the operator has located the flaw using the nonparallel scan they then position the
probe pair at the flaw and offset the pair so the transmitter or receiver exit point is centred
over the weld centerline (if he weld cap is not removed this extent of offset may be
restricted). The encoder would then need to be rotated 90° if the positional data was to be
collected or a free-running data collection could be made (i.e. time based as opposed to
accurate positional based data acquisition). The operator then moves the probe pair
perpendicular to the weld centreline such that the opposite probe-exit point reaches the
weld centreline.
The result is an arc as the beam passes over the flaw. The point on the arc exhibiting the
shortest time (apex of the arc) will correspond to the probe-pair position the straddles the
flaw such that the transmitter and receiver are equidistant. Figure 5-9 illustrates the sort of
motion (left) and the image shape that would result with a parallel scan. The B-scan on the
right side of Figure 5-9 illustrates the arcs that form from a parallel scan over 5 notches on
the opposite wall ranging in size from 0.5 to 5mm height.
The error on height estimation of internal (small) flaws is negligible. The operator should
be cautious for small flaws situated at the backwall. The constant-time locus will compound
the problems of dead zone due to pulse width. Even slightly larger (higher) flaws may be
poorly resolved and to undetected if located far enough from the PCS midpoint. This
shortcoming on the backwall may be partially addressed by increased PCS and off-set scans.
Offset scans are those where non-parallel scans are made with the PCS midpoint not equal
to the weld centreline.

Couplant Thickness – no excuse for an error
Another source of depth error estimate indicated in BS-7706 is couplant thickness variation.
Although it is possible to use immersion methods for TOFD most practical applications use
contact testing. But couplant thickness should not be a concern for contact tests. In fact, the
coupling gap should be kept to a minimum (i.e. 0mm or no gap between the wedge and test
piece). Operators who adjust wear pins or other gap control mechanisms, do so at the
expense of gross deterioration of the resolution capabilities of the TOFD technique. A gap
between the refracting wedge and test piece results in a portion of the sound being reflected
in the couplant. This results in a double lateral wave as the direct and couplant multiple
incident pulse enters the test piece. The effect is frequency dependent but typically more
than about 0.1mm gap (the thickness of a sheet of paper) will result in an interfering multiple
lateral wave.
For those concerned by the effect of local dips (areas blended by surface grinding) where
the couplant thickness might locally increase, there is a correction equation.
δd= δW v d/f (4c(d2 + S2)1/2)
where
W is the change in thickness of couplant and
v is the couplant velocity
Using the parameters in our example in Figure 5-6 the error in depth estimate at 16mm
assumed depth for a 1mm water gap would result in a depth uncertainty of 0.01mm
5.7 Frequency Content Effects
A factor not often considered when describing resolution limitations of TOFD is the effect
of frequency reduction in the off-axis portions of the beam. It must be remembered that
TOFD uses a “broadband” transducer. The short pulse results in broad – spectrum
frequency content.
A TOFD probe is usually considered to have a bandwidth of 80% or more. Bandwidth is

determined by looking at the frequency content of the pulse. It is determined by the
equation
BW-[(fu-f1)/fc] * 100
Where fu is the upper frequency at the 6 dB drop

f1 is the lower frequency at the 6dB drop
fc is the centre frequency

Figure 5-10 illustrates the frequency distribution of a narrow band (upper image) and
broadband (lower image) transducer.
Transducer bandwidths
Since a probe has more than one frequency in the pulse content, it follows that the diffraction
patterns for each frequency must obey the laws of diffraction. This implies that beam
divergence for lower frequencies is greater than higher frequencies for pulses off the same
aperture (probe diameter).
Figure 5-11 illustrates the effect of variation in beam spreads with the frequency content
from a broadband probe. Figure 5-11 models a nominal 5MHz probe with frequencies
ranging from 2-10MHz. The 2MHz has the broadest divergence (portions from 2-4MHz
form the lateral wave) and the 10MHz region is limited to small angles off the centre beam.

Frequency Content Variation
An exercise to verify this is carried out by performing an FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) on
the lateral wave and backwall signals from a nominal 5MHz probe. This is done in Figure
5-12 and the signals analysed indicate a centre frequency for the lateral wave is about
1.9MHZz and the backwall is 3.3MHz. This is in accord with the modeled approximations
in Figure 5-11. The cause of this effect is termed dispersion.
Frequency Content Variation

6. ANALYSIS SOFTWARE FEATURES & TOFD OF COMPLEX
GEOMETRY
There are many different kinds of digital processing techniques that can be applied to
ultrasonic data. Only a few of the more common techniques used with TOFD are listed
below. The considerable subject of modeling which can be of vital importance in many
applications and complex geometry is omitted. Also omitted is the considerable subject
w\of filtering and the use of more sophisticated algorithms for characterizing signals and
the subject of neural networks. The more common features of image manipulation and
contrast enhancement should be available on any good digital ultrasonic system and are
therefore not described.
6.1 Linearization
The TOFD B or D–scan data is a plot of consecutively recorded A-scan data. The A-scan
consists of series of digital samples on a linear time scale. Because of the pitch-catch
arrangement of TOFD, this scale is not a linear function of depth. The linearization software
is a file to file program which converts the data to a linear depth scale. Normally there
should be provision for self calibration by nothing the position of the lateral and back wall
signals in order to calculate the velocity and probe delay.
When the linearised file is displayed on the screen the cursor can be used to read of the
depth of signals directly.
6.2 Lateral / Back wall Straighten and Removal
Near surface defects may be partially hidden beneath the lateral wave and top surface
opening cracks will cause a dip in the lateral wave. These hidden signals, which will have
interfered with the lateral wave can often be revealed by subtracting an average lateral wave
signal from the recorded data. Often it is necessary to straighten the lateral wave first. One
o f the main problems when scanning is that a flexible mounting is required to take up any
surface variations. But this often results in slight variations in the PCS causing the lateral
wave (and all the rest of the signals) to jitter. This can make recognition of small dips in the
lateral wave very difficult and hence the need to straighten out the lateral wave.
The software is normally a file to file program. To straighten the lateral wave it is usually
necessary to define a training area in which the lateral wave is reasonably flat and free from
obvious defects in order to work out an average signal. Then a region is defined over which
the straightening is required. This is done by moving the averaging signal along the defined
region and finding for each A-scan the time shift which gives the best correlation between
the average and the new A-scan. Each new A-scan is then time shifted by this amount in the
output file.

Once the lateral wave has been straightened a similar operation is done to remove the
average signal from the defined region. Depending on the ability of the software in difficult
situations it may be necessary to carry out the operation several times on selected areas
before adequate results are obtained.
6.3 Parabolic Cursor
This facility produces a cursor shaped to the response of a point reflector on the raw B-and
D-scan data (i.e. liner time axis). As the cursor moves up and down the time axis the
parabola changes shape. The shape depends on the probe separation, the digitization
frequency, the parameters to enable absolute time to be calculated and the sampling interval
along the scan direction, all of which should be stored in the file header. There also should
be the ability to carry out self calibration on the lateral and back wall signals to enable the
velocity and probe delay to be calculated.
The parabolic cursor is used directly on the raw data (i.e. linear with time) for three
Purposes. The first use is to output the depth at the position of the cross wires. The cursor
should also output amplitude so the correct position for reading the depth can be obtained
after allowing for the phase.
The second use is to eliminate small flaw, such as pores. This is done by moving the cursor
so that the parabola overlays the characteristic response curve of the TOFD signal (see
Figure 6.3). If the fit is reasonable the reflector can be assumed to be small, i.e. less than
about 4mm in length.

The third use of the parabola is to measure the lateral length of the flaws. If the reflector has
some length it can be measured by positioning the cursor on each separate wing of the TOFD
signal in the turn and noting the position along the scan axis (see Figure 6.3). The difference
gives the length. The assumption is that the ends of the reflector act as diffraction points and
produces the arc shape as the probe approaches and leaves the tip. If the arc is deep then
the method is quite accurate since we are using all the information in the wings to get a good
fit. This is a quick and easy method of measuring the length without having to carry out the
alternative of a SAFT calculation and a 6 dB drop size. The length in general does not have
to be measured as accurately as the flaw height.
6.4 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique – SAFT
The Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) combines the digitized of waveforms
for different probe positions to synthesise the effect of a large aperture probe. The effect is
that instead of having a divergent ultrasonic beam the probe has in effect a narrow-
collimated beam of width equal to half the crystal diameter (see Figure 6.4). Flaws at deeper
depths are often smaller than the beam spread and thus measurement of the length or height
for conventional pulse-echo is difficult, but by in effect reducing the beam spread SAFT
allows the normal 6 dB drop process to be carried out.
The SAFT process also improves the signal-to-noise. Thus, SAFT enables the lateral extent
of smaller flaws to be determined more accurately. The SAFT process is only effective for
ranges beyond two near fields. The program processes a B-scan file of TOFD data and
produces a new output file.

The SAFT process is illustrated below. Ultrasonic data collected from a probe scanning over
a reflector produces a characteristic pattern due to the beam spread. This pattern may be
calculated, for a point reflector at a given depth, from the geometry of the situation and
corrected for in the manner shown in the Figure 6.4 from this pattern the time shifts required
to correlate the signals from the point reflector for the A-scan in which the signals were
recorded can be calculated. If the appropriate time shifted A-scans for a particular depth are
then summed a large signal will be small.
Thus in the output image only signals will appear when the centre of the probe beam is
reflected and all the off axis signals from the probe will disappear. In figure 6.5 an almost
point reflector is shown for illustration, but in practice the flaw will have length. The SAFT
process works just the same and only signals along the length of the flaw will remain after
SAFT. The lateral extent of the reflector can then be accurately determined by carrying out
6 dB drop sizing on the resultant signal. The signal-to-noise of the output signals will also
be improved since the time shifting and summing process any random noise signal will only
be correlated on one A-scan. In addition since the signals are uncertified random positive
signals will be cancelled out by the negative going signals. Thus SAFT will only be positive
on uncertified data.

The time shifting and summing process described above must be carried out for every point
in the image, and therefore a considerable amount of processing time is required. The time
shifting algorithm depends on the depth of the point and is carried out over the user defined
aperture of the probe, i.e. a specific number of A-scans.
This aperture size can be derived from the recorded B-scan and is the number of A-scans
over which signals are observable as the probes scan a reflector.
There are two geometrical situations with TOFD, parallel and non-parallel and since the
algorithm is slightly different for each type it is important to specify the correct type in the
file header.
Thus for TOFD data, SAFT is used to improve the accuracy with which the flaw length cad
measured and to clean up and simplify complex situations. Signals from genuine reflectors
will be reinforced and the hyperbolic wing shapes will disappear. Also the amplitude of
random noise signals will be greatly reduced. The same applies to mode SAFT can therefore
be useful for cleaning up complicated image e.g. cloud of porosity or flaws near to each
other. However, many interpreters prefer to work with the raw TOFD data use the parabolic
cursor as an alternative to SAFT processing.

6.5 Split Spectrum Processing
Split Spectrum Processing (SSP) is a non-linear digital processing technique developed by

Newhouse et al. (Ultrasonic 20, 59-68, 1982) Which can produce considerable improvements
in signal-to-noise in ultrasonic images collected from large grained materials. Very often the
scattering from large grained materials can swamp out the signal from defects and hence
make the inspection very difficult. The method is analogous to a kind of filtering and in
many materials if carried out with care, and if suitable board band probes are used,
considerable improvements can made. The improvement with austenitic materials is not
always so clear since they can exhibit a considerable degree of crystal alignment giving
anisotropic properties.
Basically the idea is that the signal from a defect will be present at all frequencies of the
transducer spectrum but the sound scattered from the grains will have frequency
dependence. This is because the scattering from the grains will have interfere and cause
destructive and constructive addition of the signals. The technique consists of taking the
frequency spectrum of the signals for each A-scan and splitting the bandwidth into a large
number (40 or 50) of windows with suitable normalization to allow for the variation of
energy with frequency in the ultrasonic beam. The idea of Newhouse et al was then to
choose the window with the lowest amplitude (minimization of squares of amplitude) and
reconstruct the signal using this window. The thought was that because the amplitude was
the minimum there would be no noise from the grains, only the defect signal.

6.6 Locus Plots
By carrying out a number of non-parallel scans with different probe positions or separations
the position of an indication can be found by plotting the locus of points corresponding to
the time-of-arrival of the diffraction signal from the indication for each scan. The position of
the indication is where the loci cross each other. This approach is more often used when
inspecting complex geometry samples where access may be limited. Modelling algorithms
are generally available for the drawing of locus curves for the geometry of interest and for
the analysis of possible mode converted signals.
6.7. Curved Surfaces and Complex Geometry
6.7.1 Curved Surfaces
The TOFD probes may have to sit on curved surfaces, e.g. pipes. For normal pipe welds the
probes straddle the butt welds and are looking in an axial direction and the curvature has
little effect, but for the case of seam welds the curvature of the pipe needs to be allowed for.
The two situations of the probes on the outside of the pipe and the inside of the pipe are
shown in Figure 6.7 and 6.8 respectively.
If the TOFD probes are situated on a convex or concave surface then the lateral wave and
back-wall echo will appear at the wrong depth with respect to the straight line drawn
through the index points of the two probes.

For the convex surface the lateral wave travels straight across the metal. Thus any signals
from defects above the straight line joining the two probes will appear after the lateral wave
and appear to come from the metal below the line. If defects are suspected to be above this
line then the probe separation needs to be reduced to make the area of ambiguity as small
as possible. One must be very careful if using the back-wall as a calibration signal since its
depth below the lateral wave (the apparent surface of the metal) is D-x and this depth should
be entered into the file header if it is used as calibration signal. In this situation it may be
simpler to use the lateral wave and enter the velocity.
The height x, of the surface mid-way between the two probes above the lateral wave is
obtained from the formula.
2Rx - x² = s²
Where R is the radius of the outer surface, giving for x<s,
x = s²/2R
The resultant depth calculation will give the depth of a reflector with respect to the lateral
wave and the correct depth will be “the apparent depth” + x.
For the concave surface the lateral wave has to run around the surface of the metal. Thus,
the lateral wave should not be used for calibration and if the back-wall is used its depth
must be entered into the file header as D + x. The resultant depth calculation will give the
depth of a reflector with respect to straight line joining the index points of the two probes
and the correct depth will be “the apparent depth” + x.

6.8 Complex Geometry
The geometry of T-butts, Nodes and Nozzles, etc., can be very complicated and access very
difficult. The situation may be such that normal pulse-echo inspection is impossible.
In these situations, it may be possible to carry out some kind of TOFD scan. However, the
data may be very difficult to interpret due to the large number of signals from the
geometry of the sample.
In these situations, it is essential to either have a mock-up of the geometry or a good

ultrasonic modelling program. In the mock-up artificial reflectors should be inserted to
simulate possible defects and the test scans carried out. Having understand the patterns of
signals obtained it may then possible to tackle the real inspection.
Modelling programs are less expensive (once available) to run and give greater flexibility in
seeing what the effect of different parameters are.
 Scan around object, i.e. into the page

 Scan down the surface
 Leave one probe stationary and scan down the surface with the other.

Because of the specialized nature of such work only a very brief discussion will be given.
Some illustration situations are shown in Figures 6.9 and 6.10
Consider first the situation shown in figure 6.9 were access to only one surface is possible.
On this surface pairs of TOFD probes can be mounted and a number of possible scan
patterns carried out. If, as normally occurs in this situation, the defect is below the probes,
and the angles of the probes have been chosen appropriate to this position, then diffraction
signals will be observed. However, when trying to locate the position of the defect tip there
is a problem since it could be anywhere on the path of a locus of constant time as shown in
the figure 6.10. Thus it is necessary to carry out a second scan with a different PCS. This will
produce a second locus track and where the two cross will define the position of the crack
tip.
In the situation shown in figure 6.10 two surfaces are available for placing the probes on,
and a scan could be carried out around the object using a pair of TOFD probes as shown.
The problem in such situations is usually the large number of possible paths between the
two probes, some of which may be entirely reflections from the various surfaces of the
object. In this case one is looking for a change in the pattern and again determining the exact
location of the defect tip may be very difficult.

7 INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION
7.1 Development of TOFD codes and standards
 BS 7706 (1993) Guide to calibration and setting-up of the ultrasonic time-of-flight

diffraction (TOFD) technique for detection, location, and sizing of flaws. British
Standards Institute 1993.
 pr EN 583-6 (1995) Nondestructive testing- ultrasonic examination - Part 6: Time-of-
flight diffraction technique as a method for defect detection and sizing.
7.2 ASME Adaptations to TOFD

 ASME VIII Code Case 2235
 Ultrasonic examination to be in accordance with ASME Section V, Article 4
 “Alternatively, for techniques that do not use amplitude recording levels,…”.
 This has opened the door for TOFD to be used on Section VIII pressure vessels
7.3 Indications from surface breaking discontinuities
Surface breaking discontinuities can be classified into 3 categories
1. Scanning surface discontinuity:

This type shows up as an elongated pattern generated by the signal emitted from the lower
edge of the discontinuity and a weakening or loss of the lateral wave (not always observed).
The indication from the lower edge can be hidden by the lateral wave, but generally a
pattern can be observed in the mode converted part of the image. For small discontinuities,
only a small delay of the lateral wave may be observed.
2. Opposite surface discontinuity:

This type shows up as an elongated pattern generated by the signal emitted from the upper
edge of the discontinuity and a weakening, loss, or delay of the backwall reflection (not
always observed).
3. Through wall discontinuity:

This type shows up as a loss or weakening of both the lateral wave and the backwall
reflection accompanied by diffracted signals from both ends of the discontinuity.

7.4 Indications from embedded discontinuities
Embedded discontinuities can be classified into categories
1. Point‐like discontinuity:
This type shows up as a single hyperbolic shaped curve which may lie at any depth.
2. Elongated discontinuity with no measurable height:

This type appears as an elongated pattern corresponding to an apparent upper edge signal.
3. Elongated discontinuity with a measurable height:

This type appears as two elongated patterns located at different positions in depth,
corresponding to the lower and upper edges of the discontinuity. The indication of the lower
edge is usually in phase with the lateral wave. The indication of the upper edge is usually
in phase with the back wall reflection. Indications of embedded discontinuities usually do
not disturb the lateral wave or the back‐wall reflection
7.5 BASICS OF DIMENSIONING

In this section there is explained some general rules for dimensioning TOFD image
indications.
7.6 Height measurement

A principle in measuring the height of the indication is determined during the calibration
of the time scale. The height measurement shall be done from the A scan image.
The measuring the height of the indications must be done with similar principles as the
calibration of the timescale has been made.
Three possibilities for time base calibration and dimensioning are presented.
The rule of phase conversion must be included.

7.7 Method 1
Echo Corner
Time base calibration is based on the corner of the first rising echo, on this type of
calibration, inspector must take count the error possibility in case of high noise.
The first and sixth red lines presents the measuring point of wall thickness. The second and
third red lines presents the measuring point of indication upper tip and lower tip in these
Figure 7.1 the first echo is presented as a negative. The firs echo may also appear as a
positive. This alternation must be taken in to account in calibration and in dimensioning the
height.
7.8 Method 2
First maximum
Time base calibration is based on the middle point of the first echoes maximum. In this type
of calibration, inspector must take in count the error possibility in case of echoes with same
level of amplitude.

third red lines presents the measuring point of indication upper tip and lower tip. In these
Figures 7.2 the first echo is presented as a negative. The first echo may also appear as a
height.
7.9 Method 3
Time base calibration is based on the maximum amplitude of the indication. On this type of
calibration, inspector must take in count the error possibility in case of phase shift that may
increase the amplitude of an echo
third red lines present the measuring point of indication upper tip and lower tip. In these
Figures 7.3 the first echo is presented as a negative. The first echo may also appear as a
height.

7.10 Examples
7.11 Length measurement
The length measurement shall be made from the echo of the upper tip or from the echo of
the lower tip, that presents the maximum measurable dimension of the indication.
A principle in measuring the length of an indication is that at first the parabolic shape of an
indication is searched.
If this parabolic shape is visible the length is measured from the point where the reduction
of the maximum amplitude can be noticed, an alternative method the 6 dB drop method
may be applied if possible.
7.12 Scanning surface discontinuity
Scanning surface discontinuity appears as a disturbance in the lateral wave or a change in

the time scale of the lateral wave. If the disturbance has parabolic ends the dimensioning is
done as shown in the Figure 7.5. The dimension is based on the drop of the amplitude of
the echo.
In the case of lack of parabolic ends the length dimensioning is done in most conservative
way Figure 7.6, the indication is assumed to begin immediately after a drop or change in
the lateral wave.

7.13 Opposite surface discontinuity
7.14 Through wall discontinuity
In these indications the same rule determined for parabolic shape and echo disturbance is
valid. A through wall discontinuity may not have any echoes inside the material, but may
have only disturbances in the lateral wave and in back wall echo. In case where no lower tip
echo is visible the indication is classified to be without measurable height.

7.15 Embedded point-like indication
Measuring the position of a point like indication is done from middle of the highest echo
visible. For an example see Figure 7.10

7.16 Flaw Tip
 Flaw lengths parallel to the surface can be measured from the TOFD image by fitting
hyperbolic cursors similar to SAFT correction but SAFT post-processes the data
7.17 Flaw Position Errors
Flaws will not always be symmetrically placed between the transmitter and receiver
transducers. Normally, a single pair of transducers is used, centered on the weld axis.
However, multiple TOFD sets can be used, particularly on heavy wall vessels, and offsets
are used to give improved detection. Also, flaws do not normally occur on the weld
centerline. Either way, the flaws will not be positioned symmetrically and this will be a
source or error in location and sizing.
There will be positional and sizing errors associated with a non-centered flaw However,
these errors will be small, and generally are tolerable since the maximum error due to off
axis position is less than 10% and the error is actually smaller yet since both the top and
bottom of the flaw are offset by similar amounts. The biggest sizing problems occur with
small flaws near the backwall. Exact error values will depend on the inspection parameters.
7.18 EVALUATION
This section shows a variety of TOFD images and the interpretation/explanation.
Unfortunately, there are significant variations amongst flaws and TOFD setups and
displays, so the following images should be used as a guide only. Evaluator experience and
analysis skills are very important as well.

7.19 Single Flaw Images
(a) Point flaws [see Fig. 7.12], like porosity, show up as single multicycle points between
the lateral and backwall signals. Point flaws typically display a single TOFD signal
since flaw heights are smaller than the ring-down of the pulse (usually a few
millimeters, depending on the transducer frequency and damping). Point flaws
usually show parabolic "tails" where the signal drops off towards the backwall.
(b) Inside (ID) far-surface-breaking flaws [see Fig. 7.15] shows no interruption of the
lateral wave, a signal near the backwall, and a related interruption or break of the
backwall (depending on flaw size).
(c) Near-surface-breaking flaws [see Fig. 7.16] shows perturbations in the lateral wave.
The flaw breaks the lateral wave, so TOFD can be used to determine if the flaw is
surface-breaking or not. The lower signal can then be used to measure the depth of
the flaw. If the flaw is not surface-breaking, i.e., just subsurface, the lateral wave will
not be broken. If the flaw is near-subsurface and shallow (that is, less than the ringing
time of the lateral wave or a few millimeters deep), then the flaw will probably be
invisible to TOFD. The image also displays a number of signals from point flaws.
(d) Midwall flaws [see Fig. 7.17] show complete lateral and backwall signals, plus
diffraction signals from the top and bottom of the flaw. The flaw tip echoes provide
a very good profile of the actual flaw. Flaw sizes can be readily black-white, while
the lower echo is black-white-black. Also note the hyperbolic curve that is easily
visible at the left end of the top echo; this is similar to the effect from a point flaw [see
Fig. 7.14] and permits accurate length measurement of flaws.
If a midwall flaw is shallow, i.e., less than the transducer pulse ring-down (a few
millimeters), the top and bottom tip signals cannot be separated. Under these
circumstances, it is not possible to differentiate the top from the bottom of the flaw,
so the evaluator can only say that the flaw is less than the ringdown distance (which
depends on transducer frequency and damping, etc.).
(e) Lack of root penetration [see Fig. 7.18)] is similar to an inside (ID) far-surface
breaking flaw [see Fig. 7.15]. This flaw gives a strong diffracted signal (or more
correctly, a reflected signal) with a phase inversion from the backwall signal. Note
that whether signals are diffracted or reflected is not important for TOFD
characterization; the analysis and sizing is the same. Also note even though there is
a perturbation of the backwall signal, the backwall is still visible across the whole
flaw. This material also shows small point flaws and some grain noise, which is quite

common. TOFD typically overemphasizes small point flaws, which are normally
undetected by conventional shear wave pulse-echo techniques.
(f) Concave root flaws [see Fig. 7.19] are similar to lack of root penetration. The top of
the flaw is visible in the TOFD image, as well as the general shape. The backwall
signal shows some perturbation as expected.
(g) Sidewall lack of fusion [see Fig. 7.20] is similar to a midwall flaw [see 7.17] with two
differences. First, the flaw is angled along the fusion line, so TOFD is effectively
independent of orientation, which is not a problem for TOFD. Second, the upper flaw
signal is partly buried in the lateral wave for this particular flaw. In this instance, the
upper tip signal is detectable since the lateral wave signal amplitude is noticeably
increased. However, if this were not the case, then the evaluator would be unable to
accurately measure the flaw depth.
(h) Porosity [see Fig. 7.21] appears as a series of hyperbolic curves of varying amplitudes,
similar to the point flaw [see Fig. 7.14]. The TOFD hyperbolic curves are
superimposed since the individual porosity pores are closely spaced. This does not
permit accurate analysis, but the unique nature of the image permits characterization
of the signals as "multiple small point flaws," i.e., porosity.
(i) Transverse cracks [see Fig. 7.21] are similar to a point flaw [see Fig. 7.14]. The TOFD
scan displays a typical hyperbola. Normally, it would not be possible to differentiate
transverse cracks from near-surface porosity using TOFD; further inspection would
be needed.
(j) Interpass lack of fusion [see Fig. 7.23] shows as a single, high amplitude signal in the
midwall region If the signal is long, it is easily differentiated from porosity or point
sources. It is not possible to distinguish the top and bottom, as these do not exist as
such. Note the expected phase change from the lateral wave.

7.20 Multiple Flaw Images
TOFD images of flawed welds contain four flaws each.
Plate 1 [Fig. 7.25]
Figure 7.25 clearly illustrates the significant advantages of TOFD (midwall flaw detection,
flaw sizing), the limitations due to dead zones, and that
(a) the sidewall incomplete fusion shows up clearly, as does the slag.
(b) the incomplete fusion at the root was not easily detected, though it did disturb the
backwall. This is not surprising in the backwall dead zone due to a shear-shear
diffracted wave. This example illustrates the potential value of using information
later in the time base, but this is outside the scope of this interpretation manual.
(c) the root crack is not visible at all due to the backwall dead zone.

Plate 2 [Figure 7.26]
Figure 7.26 shows that:

(a) all four flaws are detectable
(b) the incomplete fusion at the root shows up clearly in this scan because it is deeper.
Both the backwall perturbation and the flaw tip signals are clear.
(c) the crown toe crack is clearly visible, both by complete disruption of the lateral
wave and by the bottom tip signal. Both the incomplete fusion at the root and crown
toe crack are identifiable as surface breaking by the disruption of the lateral wave
and backwall signal, respectively.
(d) the porosity is visible as a series of signals. This cluster of porosity would be
difficult to characterize properly using the TOFD scan alone, since it could be
identified as slag or a planar flaw.
(e) the incomplete sidewall fusion is clearly visible and could be easily sized using
cursors

7.21 Typical Problems With TOFD
TOFD images can be corrupted by incorrect setups or other problems such as electrical
noise. The following images were all made on the same plate to show some of the typical
problems that can occur. Starting first with an acceptable scan, and then subsequent scans
made to show various corruptions of this image.
(a) Acceptable Scan [Fig.7.28]. The gain and gate setting are reasonable, and the electrical
noise is minimal.
(b) Incorrect Low Gain Setting [Fig. 7.29]. The lateral wave and some of the diffracted signals
are starting to disappear. At yet lower gain levels, some of the diffracted signals would
become undetectable.
(c) Incorrect High Gain Setting [Fig. 7.30]. The noise level increases to obscure the diffracted
signals; this can lead to reduced probability of detection, and poor sizing. High noise levels
can also arise from large grains. In this case, the solution is to reduce the ultrasonic
frequency.
(d) Correct gate settings are critical, because TOFD A-scans are not that easy to interpret
since there are multiple visible signals. As a minimum, the gates should encompass the
lateral wave and longitudinal wave backwall signal; the gate can extend to the shear wave
backwall, if required. Typically, the best signal to use as a guide is the first (longitudinal
wave) backwall, since it is strong and always present (assuming the transducer separation
is reasonably correct). The following Figures show examples of incorrect gate positioning,
which will inherently lead to poor flaw detection.
The first example, Fig. 7.31, shows the gate set too early, the lateral wave is visible, and the
backwall is not. Any inside (ID) near-backwall flaws will be missed.
The second example, Fig. 7.32, shows the gate set too late. The lateral wave is not visible.
The first signal is the backwall, and the second signal is the shear wave backwall. With this
setup, all the outside (OD) near-surface flaws will be missed.
The third example Fig. 7.33 is with the gate set too long. Though this is not technically
incorrect, the image will show the diffracted backwall shear-shear wave signal. These S-S
waves may show additional and confirmatory information. The diffracted shear waves
show the porosity more clearly than the diffracted longitudinal waves and there is a strong
mode-converted signal that occurs just before the shear wave gate, which could cause
interpretation problems. Normally, the gate is set fairly short to enclose only the lateral
wave and the longitudinal wave backwall to clarify interpretation.
(e) Incorrect (too far apart) transducer separation [Fig. 7.34] results in the backwall signal
becoming distorted, the lateral wave becomes weaker, and some of the diffracted signal
amplitudes drop.

(f) Incorrect (too close together) transducer separation [Fig. 7.35] results in the lateral waves
becoming stronger, and the backwall weaker. Again, the TOFD image of the flaws is poor.
(g) If the transducers are not centered on the weld [Fig. 7.36], the diffracted signal
amplitudes will


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BIT Inspection Technology

TOFD PCN NDT Training / Rev.1 / 24.05.2019

Revision Date Pages Reason for revision

1 24.05.2019 30, 83, 86 Typing error correction

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1. ULTRASONIC NON‐DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 4

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7.7 Method 1 101

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If an electric potential is applied to a piezoelectric type material it oscillates and if it is of the

Velocity = wavelength X Frequency

1.1 PULSE-ECHO DETECTION OF FLAWS

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1.2 FLAW SIZING WITH THE PULSE-ECHO TECHNIQUE

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1.4 THE TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE

BACKGROUND TO THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOFD TECHNIQUE

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The most important differences from conventional pulse-echo are

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1.6 TOFD Advantages and Limitations

TOFD (especially when used with a positioning encoded provides measurements in

Generally levels of accuracy attainable by TOFD are within ±0.5mm in terms of

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Commercial considerations make speed an important factor. The advantage that

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This item may be an advantage or disadvantage. It depends on your point of view.

Easy discrimination of defects and geometry

A common problem experienced in manual ultrasonic testing of welds is the issue of

Because of the omni-directional aspect of diffracted signals TOFD is sensitive to

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 Modification or deflection of sound beam

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 Tip diffraction method (satellite-pulse observation technique)

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2.5 Basics of TOFD inspection

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2.8 Lateral Wave

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2.10 Defect Signals

2.11 Shear or Mode Converted Shear Signals

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TOFD: Typical Setup

2.13 A-Scan Signals

2.14 Some Typical Defects

2.14.02 Back Wall Surface Breaking Crack

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2.15 Data Visualization

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2.18 Choosing an Angle

Angle selected is a compromise for

May require selecting several “zones”

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2.20 Signal Time

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2.22 How is PCS determined?