Physics 3 – 114054

Class Exercise 8 – Potential Steps, Barriers and Tunneling

Potential step

Consider a beam of identical particles of energy 𝐸 incident on a step potential,

0 𝑥<0
𝑈(𝑥) = {
𝑈0 𝑥>0

Where 𝑈0 the height of the potential and 𝐸 > 𝑈0 .

The transmission and reflection coefficients are

|𝐵|2 𝑘1 − 𝑘2 2
𝑅= = ( )
|𝐴|2 𝑘1 + 𝑘2

𝑘2 |𝐶|2 4𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑇= 2
=
𝑘1 |𝐴| 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝐴 is the amplitude of the incident wave, 𝐵 is the amplitude of the reflected wave and 𝐶 is the
amplitude of the transmitted wave.

From conservation of probability, 𝑇 + 𝑅 = 1.

𝑘1 is the wavenumber of the wave in free space (without the step potential),

2𝑚𝐸
𝑘1 = √
ℏ2

and 𝑘2 is the wavenumber of the wave above the step potential,

2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈0 )
𝑘2 = √
ℏ2

Physics 3 (114054) -1- Class Exercise 8

Tunneling through a square potential barrier

Consider a particle with energy 𝐸 < 𝑈0 is incident

on a square potential barrier,

The transmission coefficient is

−1

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 (𝑘2 𝐿)
𝑇(𝐸) = [1 + ]
𝐸 𝐸
4 𝑈 (1 − 𝑈 )
0 0

Where
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
sinh 𝑥 =
2

and the wavenumber in the region of the potential barrier is

2𝑚
𝑘2 = √ (𝑈 − 𝐸)
ℏ2 0

An approximate expression for the transmission coefficient that is obtained in the case of 𝑇 ≪ 1, that
is If the potential barrier is high or very wide, meaning that 𝑈0 is much greater than 𝐸 so that 𝑘2 𝐿 ≫ 1,

16𝐸(𝑈0 − 𝐸) −2𝑘 𝐿
𝑇≈ 𝑒 2
𝑈02

We see that raising the potential higher or making it wider causes and exponential decay in the
probability of the particle to pass through the barrier.

Physics 3 (114054) -2- Class Exercise 8

Exercise 1

A beam of identical protons of energy of 𝐸 = 1 𝑒𝑉 travels in free space and incident on an electric step
potential of 𝑈0 = 0.91 𝑉 located at 𝑥 = 0.

a. What part of the particles beam will be reflected and what part will be transmitted?

b. Draw the probability density in space. Explain your considerations.

c. How your answer would change if instead of protons, the beam would be a beam of positrons?

d. How the situation would change if instead the positrons, the beam would be a beam of electrons?

Solution

a.

To calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients, we first must calculate the wavenumbers of
the wave before meeting the potential step and on the potential step:

2𝑚𝑝 𝐸 2𝑚𝑝 𝑐 2 𝐸 2(938 ⋅ 106 𝑒𝑉)(1 𝑒𝑉)

𝑘1 = √ = √ = √ = 219.47 𝑛𝑚−1
ℏ2 (ℏ𝑐)2 (1240 𝑒𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑚/2𝜋)2

2𝑚𝑝 𝑐 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉0 ) 2(938 ⋅ 106 𝑒𝑉)(1 − 0.91)𝑒𝑉

𝑘2 = √ = √ = 65.84 𝑛𝑚−1
ℏ2 𝑐 2 (1240 𝑒𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑚/2𝜋)2

Plugging these values in the reflection and transmission coefficient gives,

4𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑇= = 0.71
(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )2
𝑘1 − 𝑘2 2
𝑅=( ) = 0.29
𝑘1 + 𝑘2

That is, almost 70% of the particles will continue to travel to the right above the step potential, and
the rest will be reflected.

Physics 3 (114054) -3- Class Exercise 8

b.

The probability density function is

On the step, there is only transmitted plane wave,

𝑘1
𝜓𝑡 (𝑥) = √ 𝑇𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘2 𝑥−𝜔𝑡)
𝑘2

the magnitude of plane wave is constant,

𝑘1
|𝜓𝑡 (𝑥)|2 = 𝑇
𝑘2

Left to the step, there is a superposition of two waves: the incident wave and the reflected wave.

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝜓𝑖 (𝑥) + 𝜓𝑟 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘1 𝑥−𝜔𝑡) + √𝑅𝐴𝑒 𝑖(−𝑘1𝑥−𝜔𝑡)

Producing together a standing wave with wavelength of 𝜆 = 2𝜋/𝑘1 .

c.

The positrons are the anti-particles of the electron. That is, the positron electric charge is the same as
the proton, +𝑒, but the mass is the mass of the electron, 𝑚𝑒 , which is approximately 1000 times less
mass than the proton.

So, the question here is: What would be different if we change the mass of the incoming particles?

Let us examine the dependency of the reflection and transmission coefficients on the mass of the
particle,

𝑘 ∝ √𝑚

Physics 3 (114054) -4- Class Exercise 8

Therefore,

2 2
𝑘 −𝑘 𝐴√𝑚−𝐵√𝑚 𝐴−𝐵 2
𝑅 = (𝑘1 +𝑘2) ∝ (𝐴 ) = (𝐴+𝐵)
1 2 √𝑚+𝐵√𝑚

4𝑘1 𝑘2 4𝐴𝐵𝑚 4𝐴𝐵

𝑇= ∝ =
(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )2 (𝐴√𝑚 + 𝐵√𝑚)2 (𝐴 + 𝐵)2

We got that the coefficient do not depend on the mass of the particle; we conclude that there will be
no difference compared to part (a).

d.

In the case of a beam of electrons, the step effect will be reversed because the electrons have negative
electric charge, 𝑈0 → (−𝑈0 ). A repelling potential will become now an attractive potential.

The wavenumber in the free space are will be different compared to part (a) only because of the mass
of the electrons compared to the protons:

2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚𝑐 2 𝐸 2(0.511 ⋅ 106 𝑒𝑉)(1 𝑒𝑉)

𝑘1 = √ = √ = √ = 5.122 𝑛𝑚−1
ℏ2 (ℏ𝑐)2 (1240 𝑒𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑚/2𝜋)2

The wavenumber in the area of the step will be affected by the change in potential energy as well,

2𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 (𝐸 + 𝑈0 ) 2(0.511 ⋅ 106 𝑒𝑉)(1 + 0.91) 𝑒𝑉

𝑘2 = √ = √ = 7.079 𝑛𝑚−1
ℏ2 𝑐 2 (1240 𝑒𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑚/2𝜋)2

And the reflection and transmission coefficients for the electrons will be

4𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑇= = 0.97
(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )2
𝑘1 − 𝑘2 2
𝑅=( ) = 0.03
𝑘1 + 𝑘2

Now 97% of the electrons will be transmitted because the potential is attractive now. However, 3%
still will be reflected, completely contrary to our classical intuition!

Physics 3 (114054) -5- Class Exercise 8

Exercise 2

An 𝛼 particle of kinetic energy 𝐾 = 8.78 𝑀𝑒𝑉 incident on a square potential barrier of width 𝐿 and
height of 𝑈0 = 17.365 𝑀𝑒𝑉.

What is the probability that the particle will tunnel through the barrier if

a. 𝐿 = 1.79 𝑓𝑚?

b. 𝐿 = 17.9 𝑓𝑚?

c. What is the kinetic energy of the 𝛼 particles after the barrier?

Solution

a.

Alpha particle is an elementary particle composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (the nucleus of Helium
atom). The rest mass of the alpha particle is

𝑚𝛼 𝑐 2 = 4𝑚𝑝 𝑐 2 = 4 ⋅ 938 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 3751 𝑀𝑒𝑉

The wavenumber at the region of the barrier is

2𝑚𝛼 (𝑉0 − 𝐸) 2𝑚𝛼 𝑐 2 (𝑉0 − 𝐸) 8𝜋 2 ⋅ (3751 𝑀𝑒𝑉)(17.365 − 8.78)𝑀𝑒𝑉

𝑘2 = √ = √ = √
ℏ2 (ℏ𝑐)2 (1240 𝑒𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑚)2

→ 𝑘2 = 1.28 ⋅ 106 𝑛𝑚−1

For 𝐿 = 1.79 𝑓𝑚 = 1.79 ⋅ 10−6 𝑛𝑚, we have 𝑘1 𝐿 = 2.3 > 1, we use the exponential expression of 𝑇:

𝐸 𝐸
𝑇 ≈ 16 (1 − ) 𝑒 −2𝑘2𝐿
𝑉0 𝑉0

8.78 8.78
= 16 ⋅ ⋅ (1 − ) 𝑒 (−2⋅2.3)
17.365 17.365

→ 𝑇 = 0.041

Physics 3 (114054) -6- Class Exercise 8

b.

For 𝐿 = 17.9 𝑓𝑚, we have 𝑘1 𝐿 = 22.9 > 1, we get

𝐸 𝐸
𝑇 ≈ 16 (1 − ) 𝑒 −2𝑘2𝐿
𝑉0 𝑉0

8.78 8.78
= 16 ⋅ ⋅ (1 − ) 𝑒 (−2⋅22.9)
17.365 17.365

→ 𝑇 = 5 ⋅ 10−20

We get that increasing the width of the potential barrier by 10, decreases the probability of the particle
for transmission by 18 orders of magnitude!

For very high or very wide potential well, we approach the classical limit of zero probability of
transmission of the particle.

c.

The decrease of amplitude of the wavefunction after the barrier signifies the reduced probability of
finding particles that managed to tunnel through the barrier – it is not due to reduced energy of the
particles!

The kinetic energy of the particles that tunneled remains the same,

𝑝2 ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐾= =
2𝑚 2𝑚

because the potential energy is zero before and after the barrier, the wavenumber 𝑘 remains the same
and so does the momentum and the kinetic energy of the particles.

Physics 3 (114054) -7- Class Exercise 8