Unit V: Oscillations and waves.

Lecture notes by T.Renuka.

Learning Objective:
1. Theory of free vibrations: Periodic motion, simple harmonic motion, equation of a simple harmonic oscillator,
expressions for period and frequency.
Energy considerations: Total energy, conversion of energy from kinetic to potential in SHM, electric to magnetic in an LC circuit.
2. Theory of damped vibrations: Resistive forces, equation of motion-expression for decaying amplitude,
Three cases of damping, Logarithmic decrement, relaxation time and quality factor.
3. Theory of forced vibrations and resonance: Equation of motion, expression for amplitude, mechanical impedance,
expression for maximum amplitude.
4. ESR & NMR.

Theory of free vibrations

1.
Periodic motion: When a body repeats its path of motion back and forth about a mean position at regular
intervals of time or comes back to its equilibrium position after completing every rotation, it is said to execute
Periodic motion.
Example: Vibrational motion of a pendulum, rotational motion of earth and planets around the Sun.
Simple Harmonic motion: If the restoring force of a periodic oscillatory system is proportional to its
displacement and is always directed toward equilibrium position, it is called simple harmonic in nature.
Free vibration: The simple harmonic vibrations of a sounding body, oscillating with its own natural
frequency, depending on its dimensions and elastic properties, with constant, undiminished amplitude as the
frictional, retarding forces are ignored, are called free vibrations.
Example: (i)A loaded spring’s oscillation, ignoring the air friction,
(ii) oscillations of a simple pendulum, again ignoring the air friction,
(iii) excited tuning fork’s oscillations, and vibrations of stringed instruments.
The graphical form of free vibration is given below:

Equation of motion for a simple harmonic oscillator:

𝒅𝟐 𝒙
For a body of mass “m”, with acceleration , by Newton’s law,
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
The vibrational force F= m. 𝒅𝒕𝟐 .
The free vibrations are simple harmonic in nature. So, the restoring force of motion is proportional to its
displacement.
The restoring force F= -k.x
Where k is the restoring force per unit displacement and is known as spring constant or stiffness, x is the
instantaneous displacement, while the minus sign indicates that this force is acting in the opposite direction
of vibrational force.
With no other force acting on the body the vibrational force is equal to the restoring force.
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
m = -k.x
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝑑2 𝑥 𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒌
m +kx =0 or + 𝒎x =0 (1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝒅𝒕𝟐

1
The Equation of motion of free vibration for a simple harmonic oscillator is given by the expression,
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
+ 𝝎𝟐 x =0 (2)
𝒅𝒕𝟐
k
where m = ω 2 is the square of angular frequency of the vibrating body .
The solution of the above equation is a simple harmonic function given by,
x= a sin 𝝎t. (3)
Period and frequency: Differentiating the above expression,
𝒅𝒙
= velocity= a𝝎 cos 𝝎𝒕 = 𝝎√𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 (4)
𝒅𝒕
Velocity is maximum when x=0. Substituting it in 4,
𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒂. 𝝎 (𝟒𝒂)

Differentiating the above expression again,

𝒅𝟐 𝒙
= 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = −𝒂 𝝎𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝐭 = -𝝎𝟐 𝒙 (4b)
𝒅𝒕𝟐
accelerationis maximum when x=a. Substituting it in 4b,

𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒂. 𝝎𝟐 (𝟒𝒄)
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒌
Rearranging, + 𝝎𝟐 x =0 where 𝝎𝟐 =
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒎
The phase difference between displacement and velocity, velocity and acceleration are shown below:

𝑘
The angular frequency of free vibration is given by, ω=√𝑚 (5)

𝟏 𝒌
The frequency of free vibration is given by, ν= 𝟐𝝅 √𝒎 (6)
𝑚
The time period of free vibration is given by, T= 2𝜋√ 𝑘 (7)
Total energy: The total energy of the simple harmonic system is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies.
E=T+V
1 𝑑𝑥 1
The kinetic energy=T= 2 𝑚( 𝑑𝑡 )2= 2m𝜔2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑥2 1
The potential energy= 𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 =2m𝜔2 𝑥 2
2
The total energy E = ½ (m𝝎𝟐 𝒂𝟐 ) =1/2 k a2 (8)
Thus the energy in the simple harmonic oscillator is shared between elastic potential energy and kinetic
energy, with the total energy always being a constant.

Conversion of energy from kinetic to potential in SHM: In simple harmonic motion, the energy
oscillates back and forth between kinetic energy and potential energy. Energy going completely from one to
the other as the system oscillates. When the object is rest, its kinetic energy is zero. This happens at
extremities when x=a, the maximum displaced position. So the total energy, at the extremities,
2
 1 1 1
E = T+V = 0+V = 2m𝜔2 𝑥 2 = 2m𝜔2 𝑎2 =2 𝑘. 𝑎2
As the object starts to move, the elastic potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, becoming entirely
kinetic energy at the equilibrium position x=0. So total energy at the mean position,
1 1 1
E=T+V=T+0= 2m𝜔2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2m𝜔2 𝑎2 = 2 𝑘. 𝑎2
It is then converted back into elastic potential energy, as the velocity becomes zero when the kinetic energy
is completely converted. In the intermediate positions, where x is not equal to zero,
1 𝑑𝑥 𝟏
The kinetic energy=T= 2 𝑚( 𝑑𝑡 )2= 𝟐m𝝎𝟐 (𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝑥2 𝟏
The potential energy= ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 =𝟐m𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟐
2
1
The total energy= ½ (m𝝎𝟐 𝒂𝟐 )= 2 𝑘. 𝑎2
Thus the total energy in the simple harmonic oscillator is shared between elastic potential energy and
kinetic energy and is always conserved.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Therefore, the total
energy in simple harmonic motion will always be constant. However, kinetic energy and potential energy are
interchangeable. Given below is the graph of kinetic and potential energy vs instantaneous displacement.

In the graph, we can see that, (i) At the mean position, the total energy in simple harmonic motion is purely
kinetic and at the extreme position, the total energy in simple harmonic motion is purely potential energy.
(ii)At other positions, kinetic and potential energies are interconvertible and their sum is equal to E=1/2 k a2
(iii) The nature of the graph is parabolic.

Conversion of electric energy to magnetic energy in an LC circuit: An inductor concentrates and stores
magnetic energy, while a capacitor concentrates charge and thereby stores electric energy. The inductor (L)
and the capacitor (C) are the key components in an oscillatory tank circuit.
We can make a circuit to oscillate at its natural frequency by first storing electrical energy, in other words,
charging its capacitor as shown in Figure 1. When this is accomplished, the switch is thrown to the position
shown in Figure 2 and it will produce oscillatory current or voltage. We can measure the oscillatory current
using an ammeter and plot the current versus time period T. (Time period T on our graph is the time it takes
to complete one oscillation)

Figure 1: Switch position Figure 2: Switch position for

for charging the capacitor the circuit to oscillate

3
At time = 0, all of the electrical energy is stored in the capacitor and the current is zero to start with,
as shown in Figure 3. The top plate of the capacitor is charged positively while the bottom plate is
charged negatively. Current flows in a clockwise direction, through the inductor and reaches the
maximum value at an instant T/4. The energy flows from the capacitor into the inductor, similar to
the kinetic energy contained in a moving mass. When the voltage across the capacitor becomes zero,
the inductor opposes the current flow and so the current falls and it charges the capacitor in the
opposite direction. In other words, the bottom plate now has the positive charge and the top plate the
negative charge.

Figure 3 Figure 4

Figure 5 Figure6

Current decreases and becomes zero, at an instant T/2. By then the magnetic field energy in the inductor has
induced a back e.m.f. in the plates of capacitor as shown in Figure 4. The electrical energy flows back into
the inductor, but in the opposite direction, as the polarity of the capacitor is now reversed, as shown in
Figure 5. Finally the voltage across the capacitor becomes zero, the inductor opposes the current flow and
so the current falls and it charges the capacitor in the opposite direction. The energy fully returns to its
starting point ready to begin the cycle all over again as shown in Figure 6.

2. Theory of damped vibrations

The vibrations of a sounding body, oscillating with its own natural frequency, with gradually diminishing
amplitude because of the frictional and retarding forces are called damped vibrations.
Some examples of damped vibrations are:
(i)A loaded spring’s oscillation gradually diminishes because of the air friction;
(ii)The oscillations of a simple pendulum gradually diminishes in amplitude and stops because of the air
friction;
(iii) The excited tuning fork’s oscillates only for a small time because of the air friction,
(iv) The vibrations of stringed instruments.
The graphical form of damped vibration is given below:

Equation of motion of damped vibration:

4
 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
For a body of mass “m”, with acceleration ,
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
The vibrational force F1= m. .
𝒅𝒕𝟐
The restoring force F2= -k.x
Where k is the restoring force per unit displacement and it is known as spring constant or stiffness,
x is the instantaneous displacement, while the minus sign indicates that this force is acting in the opposite
direction of vibrational force.
The frictional force trying to bring down the amplitude of vibrations is directly proportional to the velocity
of the vibrations.
𝒅𝒙
𝑭𝟑 = −𝒓. 𝒅𝒕 , The minus sign indicating that this force is acting in the opposite direction of vibrational force.
At equilibrium, The vibrational force= The restoring force+ The frictional force
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
m = -k.x - r (1)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
m +𝐫 + kx =0
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒌
+ 𝟐𝒃 + 𝒎x =0 (2)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝒌
where r/m=2b and 𝝎𝟐 = 𝒎
The Equation of motion of damped vibration is given by the expression,
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
+ 𝟐𝒃 𝒅𝒕 + 𝝎𝟐 x =0 (3)
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Expression for decaying amplitude: Let the general solution of the equation of motion of damped vibration
is given above be
𝒙 = 𝑨𝒆𝜶𝒕 (4)
Differentiating (3) twice and substituting in expression (5), We get
α 2+2bα+ω2=0 (5)
The two roots of the above quadratic expression are: -b±√𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 . Hence,
The solution of the second order differential equation is
x=𝒆−𝒃𝒕 {(𝑨𝟏 𝐞𝐱𝐩(√𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 𝒕 ) + 𝑨𝟐 𝐞𝐱𝐩(−√𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐) 𝒕)} (6)
The value of 𝑨𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟐 can be found by substituting the value of displacement (x=a) and velocity
(dx/dt=0)at the extremities, where the time instant is the starting point; t=0.
The boundary conditions are: Displacement x= a, when t=0 and velocity dx/dt=0 when t=0.
𝒂 𝒃 𝒂 𝒃
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟐(𝟏 + ) and 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟐 (𝟏 − ) (7)
√𝒃𝟐 −𝝎𝟐 √𝒃𝟐 −𝝎𝟐
𝒂 𝒃 𝒂 𝒃
x=𝒆−𝒃𝒕 {( (𝟏 + ) 𝐞𝐱𝐩(√𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 𝒕 ) + (𝟏 − ) 𝐞𝐱𝐩(−√𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐) 𝒕 } (𝟖)
𝟐 √𝒃𝟐 −𝝎𝟐 𝟐 √𝒃𝟐 −𝝎𝟐

Depending on the relative values of b and 𝜔, there are three cases of damping:
Case (i): b> ω: overdamping.
Case(ii): b= ω: 𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐠.
Case(iii) b< ω: 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐠.

Three cases of damping:

Case(i): Overdamping b> 𝛚: The damping force is large.
𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 is a positive value. Both the exponential terms contribute to exponential decay of motion as
the solution is simply a sum of two decaying exponentials.

5
The body after passing through the maximum displacement, slumps to equilibrium and rests. The expression
for x represents a dead beat motion. The displacement decreases exponentially to zero. It is called
overdamping and is represented as exponentially decreasing curve in the graph.
Overdamping is defined as the non-oscillatory motion of a body, under the resistive force of damping
constant more than the vibrating force so that the body comes to rest, before the oscillation starts, at a slower
pace. An example of over damping is the motion of a simple pendulum inside highly viscous liquid. The
graphical representation of the over damped vibration is marked as 1 in the figure below:

Case(ii): b= 𝛚. 𝐓𝐡𝐢𝐬 𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐠. To mathematically analyze, let us take 𝑏 2 − 𝜔2 =

positive.
It is a small positive value ϵ which tends to zero.
The solution becomes x= 𝐶1 exp(−𝑏 + 𝜖)t + 𝐶2 exp(−𝑏 − 𝜖)t
= e−bt {𝐶1 exp(𝜖)t + 𝐶2 exp(−𝜖)t}
= e−bt {(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) + (𝐶1 − 𝐶2 )𝜖𝑡)}
Both the exponent and the second terms contribute to the decrease of amplitude as time increases but it rapidly
approaches zero to attain equilibrium position. For example the pointers of electrical measuring instruments
namely, Voltmeter, galvanometer exhibit critical damping. Shock absorbers of the vehicles are designed to
provide critical damping to return to equilibrium rapidly. The graphical representation of the critical damping
is marked as 2, in the figure above:
The critical damping is defined as the condition under which the restoring and resistive forces acting on the
body so that the body is brought to a stop at equilibrium without vibrations in minimum time.

Case(iii) b< 𝛚: 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐥.

The term√b 2 − ω2 can be written as 𝐢. √(𝛚𝟐 − 𝐛 𝟐 ) = ω′
The solution becomes x=e−bt (B1 exp(ω′ t) + B2 exp(ω′ t) where B1 = A1 + A2 and B2= i(A1 − A2 )
x=Re−bt cos( ω′ t − θ)
B
This motion is oscillatory and it is called under damped vibration. R= B1 2 + B2 2 and θ =tan -1 (B2 )
1
For this under-damped harmonic motion, amplitude decreases exponentially with time. Hence, it is not a
simple harmonic motion but it is an oscillatory motion, whose angular frequency is ω′
The amplitude of motion is a = R e-bt = a0 e-1/2T
The under damping condition is defined as the condition of a freely vibrating body with restoring and
resistive forces acting on it making the amplitude of vibrations to be gradually diminishing as the time
progresses, and finally halts at equilibrium position.
The displacement-time graph for the damped harmonic oscillations is shown in Figure below:
It is evident that the amplitude of motion decreases exponentially.

6
The three characteristics of under damping vibrations:
(i) Logarithmic decrement (𝛌): The ratio of two successive amplitudes remains constant (d) and this
ratio is called decrement. a1/a2=a2/a3=a3/a4=…an/an+1=d = 𝒆𝝀
The logarithmic decrement is defined as the natural log of the ratio of the amplitudes of any two
successive peaks, where x(tn)=an is the amplitude at time tn and x(t 1+n) is the amplitude of the peak =a n+1
Since, d =e 𝛌, taking natural log, we get, Log d = 𝛌 = ln (an/an+1)
(ii) Relaxation time (𝜏): It is that time in which the amplitude of damped vibrations decreases to
0.6065 time its initial value. It is also the time in which its total energy reduces to (0.37) or e-1 times its
initial value.
(iii) Quality factor (Q): The quality factor of an oscillator expresses its efficiency. It is represented by
the letter Q. Since there is no energy loss in free oscillations of an ideal oscillator, its efficiency is
maximum. The quality factor of any oscillator is defined as the number of cycles required for the average
energy to fall off by a factor e -1 and is expressed mathematically as the product of 2 π with the ratio of the
average energy stored in the oscillator at any instant to the loss in energy in one periodic time. Q= w/2b
ω2
ω’= √w 2 − b 2 = 𝜔√1 − 4𝑄2
i.e., Quality factor Q =2π times energy stored at any instant / energy lost in one second. Q= 𝛚′ 𝝉/𝟐
Quality factor is a dimensionless quantity. More the relaxation time of an oscillator, more is its quality factor.

3.Theory of forced vibrations

The vibrations of a body, oscillating with a frequency other than its own natural frequency, because of a
periodic force tending to sustain the vibrations by overcoming the frictional forces, is called forced vibrations.
Example: Some examples of forced vibrations are:
(i)A swing’s oscillation gradually diminishes because of the air friction; a person pushing it periodically
will sustain the swinging.
(ii)The oscillations of a pendulum in a clock where the gradually diminishing amplitude is made a constant
by potential energy of a keyed in spring which overcomes damping.
(iii) The current in an LCR circuit oscillates driven by an a.c.source.
(iv) The vibrations of calling bell by an electrically moving hammer.
Theory of forced vibrations :
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
For a body of mass “m”, with acceleration ,
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
The vibrational force = F1= m. 𝒅𝒕𝟐
The restoring force = F2= -k.x ,
where k is the restoring force per unit displacement and it is known as spring constant or stiffness, x is the
instantaneous displacement, while the minus sign indicates that this force is acting in the opposite direction
of vibrational force.

7
The frictional force trying to bring down the amplitude of vibrations is directly proportional to the velocity
𝒅𝒙
of the vibrations. The frictional force = 𝑭𝟑 = −𝑟. 𝒅𝒕
The minus sign indicating that this force is acting in the opposite direction of vibrational force.
When an external periodic force 𝐅𝟒 of amplitude ′f ′ and frequency ′p′ , which is equal to f.sinpt, is
applied to damped vibration, the damping is overcome by this force and the body executes sustained
oscillation of frequency ‘p’, that of the external periodic force.
At equilibrium, The vibrational force= The restoring force+ The frictional force+ external periodic force
𝑑2 𝑥 𝒅𝒙
m +r + kx = f.sin pt (1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝒅𝒕
Equation of motion of forced vibration is given by,
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
+ 𝟐𝒃 𝒅𝒕 + 𝝎𝟐 x =F sin pt (2)
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒌
Where r/m=2b, f/m=F and 𝝎𝟐 = 𝒎
Let the general solution be of the form x= A sin(p.t-𝛉) (3)

Differentiating twice and substituting in (2), and equating the coefficients of sin(p.t-𝛉) and cos(p.t-𝛉) we
get (𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 ) = cos 𝛉, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟐𝐛𝐩 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 (4)

The amplitude of steady state oscillations is given by the expression,

𝐹 𝟐𝒃𝒑
A= and 𝛉 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ((𝝎𝟐 −𝒑𝟐)) (5)
√(𝝎𝟐 −𝒑𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐
The solution to equation of motion of forced vibration is given by,
𝐹
x= sin(p.t-𝛉) (6)
√(𝝎𝟐 −𝒑𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐

𝑭
In the expression for amplitude, , the condition for maximum amplitude is that the
√(𝛚𝟐 −𝒑𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐
𝑑
denominator should be minimum. The differntial (𝛚𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 )𝟐 + 𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐 = 0 (7)
𝑑𝑝

𝒑𝟐 = (𝛚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒃𝟐 ) (8)

As the damping factor tends to a small value, b→ 0, 𝛚 = 𝐩.

𝑭 𝑭
A max= 𝟐𝒃𝒑 = 𝟐𝒃𝒘 (9)

There are three cases of forced vibrations:

8
Case (i): 𝛚 > 𝐩: When the natural frequency of body is more than the periodic force’s frequency, the
damping factor determines the amplitude and phase difference. For small values of b and p,
𝑭
The amplitude calculated from the expression (5) is A= and the phase difference 𝛉 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝟎) = 𝟎
𝛚𝟐
The resultant vibration is in phase with the applied periodic force.
Case (ii): 𝛚 = 𝐩 When the natural frequency of body is equal to the periodic force’s frequency, the
condition is called resonance. It is discussed in detail in the next section.
𝑭
A max= 𝟐𝒃𝒑 , and the phase difference 𝛉 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝟏/𝟎) = 𝟗𝟎o
The resultant vibration is 𝟗𝟎o out of phase with the applied periodic force.

Case(iii): 𝛚 < 𝐩 When the natural frequency of body is less than the periodic force’s frequency,
𝑭
A max= 𝐩𝟐 , 𝛉 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (−𝟎) = 𝟏𝟖𝟎o
The resultant vibration is 18𝟎o out of phase with the applied periodic force.

Resonance
Resonance is defined as a phenomenon, where the frequency of a periodic force (p) acting on a vibrating
body matches the natural frequency (𝛚) of the body resulting in maximum amplitude of vibrations.
Resonance requires 3 basic pre-requisites:
1) An Object capable of vibrating with natural frequency: The object can be a mechanical device like
tuning fork producing sound vibrations, the string of a guitar strummed, or in an electronic LC circuit, the
oscillation of a variable voltage or current.
2) A Forcing Function at the Same Frequency as the Natural Frequency: In mechanical systems the
forcing function is a variable force. In electronic circuits it arises from a variable electric field applied from
an AC power source. In both cases, the forcing function works on the object and energy transfer occurs. It
causes energy to build up in the object.
3) Minimum resistance for Energy Loss: For an object to resonate, mechanical or electrical energy has to
build up in the object. Anything which removes these forms of energy tends to interfere with resonance.
Damping is the removal of electrical or mechanical energy by converting it to heat. Friction, air resistance,
and viscous drag can all provide damping in mechanical systems. Electrical resistance performs the same
function in electronic circuits. When the forcing function's frequency matches the natural frequency of an
object it will begin to resonate. The forcing function adds energy at just the right moment during the
oscillation cycle so that the oscillation is reinforced. This makes the oscillation's amplitude to grow larger.
These oscillations would eventually become infinitely large. However, before the oscillations reach infinity,
one of three things happens: 1) the object's dynamics change so that the resonant frequency and forcing
functions no longer match, 2) the energy lost as heat, sound, or light becomes equal to the energy input or 3)
the object breaks.
LCR Series resonance circuit: In real-world LC circuits, there is always some resistance which causes the
amplitude of the current to grow smaller with each cycle. After a few cycles the current diminishes to zero.
This is called a "damped sinusoidal" waveform. How fast the current damps to zero depends on the
resistance in the circuit. However, the resistance does not alter the frequency of the sinusoidal wave. If the
resistance is high enough, the current will not oscillate at all. By hooking an alternating current (AC) power
supply up to the LC circuit, the damping is compensated so that resonance is achieved. The term alternating
means that the output of the power supply oscillates at a particular frequency. When the frequency of the
AC power supply and the frequency of LC circuit are the same, resonance occurs resulting in the amplitude
of current becoming maximum.
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EEquation of e.m.f.in the circuit will be
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
L 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑅 +𝐶 =𝐸
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝟐 𝒒 𝑹 𝒅𝒒 𝒒 𝑬
Dividing throughout by L, +𝑳 + 𝑳𝑪 =
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝑳
Comparing it with the equation of forced vibration,

1 𝑅
Frequency ω = LC ; Damping factor= 2L

Electrical resonance is said to take place in a series LCR circuit, when the circuit allows maximum
current for a given frequency of the source of alternating supply for which capacitive reactance
becomes equal to the inductive reactance. The current (I) in a series LCR circuit is given by
E
I=E/Z= 1 2
√R2 +(𝐿ω− )
Cω

At high frequency, XL=Lω; is very large and XC=1/Cω; is very small.

At low frequency, XL=Lω is very small and XC=1/Cω; is very large.
When the two reactance are equal resonance is said to occur.
If XC=XL for a particular frequency f0, then the impedance of LCR circuit is given by
1
√R2 + (𝐿ω − )2=√R2 + 0 =R
Cω

Impedance of LCR circuit is minimum and purely resistive. Hence current is maximum. This
frequency f0 is called electrical resonance.
Determination of Resonant Frequency: For electrical resonance,
ω 2 = 1/𝐿𝐶 ω= 1/√LC fo=1/2π√LC
XC=XL Lω= 1/Cω

Application of LCR Circuit: At resonance, LCR circuits admit maximum current at particular
frequencies. LCR circuit is used in transmitters and receivers of radio, television and telephone
carrier equipment etc.
Quality Factor of Resonance Circuit: The quality factor or Q-factor of a series resonant circuit is
defined as the ratio of a voltage developed across the inductance or Capacitance at resonance to
the impressed voltage, which is the voltage applied across R.
LCR parallel resonance circuit: A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an
inductance, L and a capacitance, C will produce a parallel resonance (also called anti-resonance)
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 circuit when the resultant current through the parallel combination is in phase with the supply
voltage. At resonance there will be a large circulating current between the inductor and the
capacitor due to the energy of the oscillations, then parallel circuits produce current resonance.

A parallel resonant circuit stores the circuit energy in the magnetic field of the inductor and the
electric field of the capacitor. This energy is constantly being transferred back and forth between
the inductor and the capacitor which results in zero current and energy being drawn from the
supply. This is because the corresponding instantaneous values of IL and IC will always be equal
and opposite and therefore the current drawn from the supply is the vector addition of these two
currents and the current flowing in IR.
When XL equals XC, the reactive branch currents are equal and opposite. Hence they cancel out
each other to give minimum current in the main line. Since total current is minimum, in this state
the total impedance is maximum.
The resonant frequency is given by fo=1/2π√LC

At f0, the line current is minimum. The total impedance is at the maximum. In this state a circuit is
called a rejecter circuit. Below f0, the circuit is inductive. Above f0, the circuit is capacitive.

In the parallel resonance circuits the supply voltage is common for all branches, so this can be
taken as our reference vector. Each parallel branch must be treated separately as with series
circuits so that the total supply current taken by the parallel circuit is the vector addition of the
individual branch currents. We can calculate the current in each branch and then add together We
know from the series resonance circuits that resonance takes place when VL= -VC and this
situation occurs when the two reactance are equal, XL = XC.

4. Electron Spin Resonance

Principle :Every electron has a magnetic moment and spin quantum number ms =1/2, with magnetic spin
components +1/2 and -1/2. In the presence of an external magnetic field with strength Bo, the electron's
magnetic moment aligns itself either parallel (ms =-1/2) or antiparallel (ms =+1/2 ) to the field, each
alignment having two specific energies due to the Zeeman effect. The energy of each of these states is
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑔𝑒 𝜇𝑏 𝐵𝑜
Where 𝑔𝑒 is the electron's g-factor (see also the Landé g-factor), 𝜇𝑏 is the Bohr magneton. Therefore, the
separation between the lower and the upper state is 𝛥𝐸 = 𝑔𝑒 𝜇𝑏 𝐵𝑜
for unpaired free electrons. This equation implies that the splitting of the energy levels is directly
proportional to the magnetic field's strength, as shown in the diagram below:

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An unpaired electron can move between the two energy levels by either absorbing or emitting a photon of
energy ℎ𝜈 such that the resonance condition,𝛥𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝑔𝑒 𝜇𝑏 𝐵𝑜 is obeyed. This is the fundamental
equation of EPR spectroscopy. It is a branch of absorption spectroscopy in which radiation having
frequency in microwave region is absorbed by paramagnetic substance to induce transition between
magnetic energy levels of electron with unpaired spin. Magnetic energy splitting is done by applying a
static magnetic field.

Set up of ESR SPECTROSCOPY: The instrumentation for spectroscopy consists of:

1. Klystron tube to produce electromagnetic oscillation in microwave range, normally 100MHz.
2. Resonant cavity containing the sample, where energy is absorbed by microwave range of frequency
which matches exactly with the energy levels of electron with unpaired spin.
3. Electromagnet where the magnetic field of the order of Tesla is produced by electricity. The
resonant cavity is placed between its poles pieces.
4. Modulation coil to supply the signal at a frequency consistent with good signal noise ratio.
5. Silicon crystal detector which converts radiation into DC, and a phase sensitive detector where the
signal finally passes through.

Uses: (i) In Chemistry and Physics, for the detection and identification of free radicals and paramagnetic
centers such as F-centers.
(ii) For studying both radicals formed in chemical reactions and the reactions themselves.
(iii) In geology and archaeology as a dating tool as can be applied to a wide range of materials such as
carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, silica or other silicates.
(iv) Medical and biological applications: Specially-designed nonreactive radical molecules can attach to
specific sites in a biological cell, and EPR spectra can then give information on the environment of these so-
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called spin labels or spin probes. Spin-labeled fatty acids have been extensively used to study dynamic
organization of lipids in biological membranes, lipid-protein interactions and temperature of transition of
gel to liquid crystalline phases.
5. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Principle: Spin is a fundamental property of nature like electrical charge or mass of elementary particles.
Nuclear spin comes in multiples of 1/2 and can be + or -. Individual unpaired protons, and neutrons each
possess a spin of 1/2. Two or more particles with spins having opposite signs can pair up to eliminate the
spin like in helium nucleus. In nuclear magnetic resonance, it is unpaired nuclear spins that are of
importance, like in hydrogen nucleus. When placed in a magnetic field of strength B, a particle with a net
spin can absorb a photon, of frequency ν. The frequency ν depends on the gyromagnetic ratio, γ of the
particle. ν = γ B.
This particle can undergo a transition between the two energy states by the absorption of a photon. A
particle in the lower energy state absorbs a photon and ends up in the upper energy state. The energy of this
photon must exactly match the energy difference between the two states. The energy, E, of a photon is
related to its frequency, ν, and Planck's constant h.
E=hν

In NMR and MRI, the quantity ν is called the resonance frequency or the Larmor frequency. The energy
of the two spin states can be represented by an energy level diagram. We have seen that ν = γ B and E = h ν,
therefore the energy of the photon needed to cause a transition between the two spin states is E = h γ B.
The frequency of the photon is in the radio frequency (RF) range, typically between 60 and 800 MHz for
hydrogen nuclei. The energy emitted by the nuclei as they settle down to lower energy level after stimulus
can be analysed.
The set up consists of: 1. The sample holder where the sample is kept.
2. The electromagnet of high magnetic field frequency of the order of 100MHz, which contains the sample
holder in between its pole pieces.
3. The magnetic coils produce the magnetic field when current flows through them.
4. The sweep generator produces homogeneous magnetic field throughout the sample.
5. The radio frequency transmitter send out a short powerful high radio frequency pulse through the
sample.
6. The pick-up coil is a radio frequency receiver which receives the energy emitted by the nuclei as they
settle down to lower energy level after stimulus.
7. The readout systems like computer project the NMR image, which is analysed.

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Applications:
1. In medical field, the MRI technique is useful for scanning the human body of cancerous growth and
anamolies.
2. In chemistry, structure of organic compounds can be identified.

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 Probable Questions.
1. Define: a) Periodic motion
b) Simple harmonic motion.
c)

Problems in Unit V- Vibrations

1. Calculate the period, frequency, circular frequency, maximum velocity, maximum acceleration,
velocity and acceleration, total energy at half way between mean and extreme positions for a mass
0.5 kg attached to a spring of force constant 50 N/m and pulled to 0.01 m to one side and left to
vibrate freely. (π/5 s, 5/π Hz, 10 /s, 0.1 m/s., 1 m/s2, 0.099 m/s, 0.5 m/s2, .0025 J)

2. Calculate the force on hydrogen atom of mass 1.68 x 10 -27 kg when attached to methane molecule
undergoes SHM of frequency 10 14 Hz and acceleration 10 -10 m/s2. (66.3X10 -9 N)
3. Find the force constant, time period and frequency of oscillation when a mass of 0.5 kg is attached to
a spring resulting in an extension of 0.03 m. (163.3 N/m, 0.35s,2.87 Hz)
4. Find the amplitude of oscillation and displacement at the end of 10 sec for a free vibration of particle
of period 25 seconds, given that its velocity is 0.7m/s after 5 seconds. (9.06m, 5.3 m)
5. A guitar string making free vibrations, has amplitude 5 mm at mid-point and maximum velocity 1.57
m/s. Calculate its frequency.
6. Calculate (i) period of oscillation, (ii) number of oscillations in which amplitude becomes half the
value for a harmonic oscillator m=.25 kg, damping constant=0.07kg /s and k=85N/m.
(0.34s, 15)
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝑑𝑥
7. Equation of motion for a spring loaded with 2 kg is given by: 2 𝒅𝒕𝟐 + 0.013 𝑑𝑡 + 1.21 x =0.Calculate
the angular frequency and the time taken for the amplitude of oscillations to decay to 1/e of the
starting value. (0.775 rad/s, 307.7 s)
th
8. The amplitude of an oscillator of frequency 200 Hz falls to 1/10 of initial value after 2000 cycles.
Calculate relaxation time, quality factor and damping constant. ( b=0.23, τ =2.174, Q=2730)
9. Calculate the force constant of a spring loaded by 0.3 kg having a quality factor 60 and vibrating
with a frequency 2 Hz. Also find resistance coefficient r.
(47.37 N/m, 0.0628 kg/m)

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10. The forced harmonic oscillator have displacement amplitudes at 400 /s and 600 /S. Find the resonant
frequency at which the amplitude is maximum.
11. In a series LCR circuit, L=1mH and C =5μF. Calculate the frequency of discharge if R=10 Ω.
(2110 Hz)
12. A vibrating system of natural frequency 500 Hz is forced to vibrate with a periodic force
/mass with an amplitude 100 x10 -5 N/kg in the presence of damping /unit mass of 0.01x10-3 rad/s.
Calculate the maximum amplitude of vibration. (0.318)

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