PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [1]

Lecture 05

Force and Potential energy

PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [2]

Harmonic approximation of potential energy

𝑈(𝑥)
Spring model for Carbon dioxide
𝑈(𝑥)

1
𝑈(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 2 𝒙
2

Pure harmonic potential Harmonic approximation of the potential

 Potential energy for atom and many other practical systems are close to harmonic
around equilibrium point but deviates at larger distance from equilibrium

 Exact potential is hard to (re)solve.

PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [3]

Harmonic approximation
Taylor series expansion
𝟏
𝑼 𝒙 = 𝑼 𝒙𝟎 +𝑼′ 𝒙𝟎 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 + 𝑼"(𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝟐+𝑶(𝟑)
𝟐!
𝒅𝑼 𝒅𝟐 𝑼
Here 𝑼′ 𝒙 = 𝑼" 𝒙 =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎
 We are taking the expansion around the 𝑼(𝒙)
equilibrium distance, x0.
Hence 𝑈 ′ 𝑥0 = 0 , since the force is
zero (potential has an extremum).
𝒙
 Let us assume that 𝑈 𝑥0 = 0 , the 𝑼𝟎
potential at the equilibrium (reference) is
zero. 𝒙𝟎 𝒙

𝒙𝟎
𝒙 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [4]

Harmonic approximation
Taylor series expansion examples:
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [5]

Harmonic approximation continue …

𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝑼(𝒙) = 𝑼"(𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒌 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝟐! 𝟐
𝑼(𝒙)

Spring constant
𝑘 = 𝑼"(𝒙𝟎 )
𝒙
Thus, frequent of vibration about equilibrium,
𝒙𝟎 𝒙 𝒌
𝝎=
𝒎

𝑘
For two particle system (molecule), frequency of vibration, 𝜔 =
𝜇
𝑚1 𝑚2
where, the reduced mass () of oscillator is 𝜇 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [6]

Harmonic approximation: Example

𝑼(𝒙) Harmonic Approximation to Morse Potential
(Model for a diatomic molecule!)

−𝛼(𝑥−𝑥0 ) 2
𝑈 𝑥 =𝐷 1−𝑒
𝑈 𝑥0 = 0
𝑈 ∞ =𝐷
Interatomic distance
To break the molecule one has to
supply energy, D. This is a
convenient model for diatomic
molecules.
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [7]

Harmonic approximation: Example

First find the equilibrium

𝑈 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝐷𝛼 1 − 𝑒 −𝛼 𝑥−𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼 𝑥−𝑥0 =0

Solving, equilibrium is at 𝑥 = 𝑥0
Now
𝑈"(𝑥) = 2𝐷𝛼 −𝛼𝑒 −𝛼 𝑥−𝑥0
+ 2𝛼𝑒 −2𝛼 𝑥−𝑥0

At equilibrium, 𝑈"(𝑥0 ) = 2𝐷𝛼 2 ≈ 𝑘

𝒌 𝟐𝑫
𝝎= =𝜶
𝝁 𝝁
 Lecture 05
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 [8]

Work and potential energy for 2D & 3D motions

Negative charge Potential energy is function of

plane coordinate (𝑥, 𝑦) or (𝑟,𝜃)
Positive charge
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [9]

Work and potential energy in 3D

1D motion: Displacement and force are
along the same line.
Work done by force
𝒅𝑾 = 𝑭 𝒅𝒙 𝐹Ԧ 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥ො
Energy conservation:
Work done by the particle (−𝒅𝑾) =
Change in its potential energy (𝒅𝑼)
𝒅𝑼
Thus, −𝑭𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝑼, Hence, 𝑭 = −
𝒅𝒙
𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹𝑥 𝑥ො + 𝐹𝑦 𝑦ො + 𝐹𝑧 𝑧Ƹ
3D motion: Displacement and force are in
different directions 𝜽 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥ො + 𝑑𝑦 𝑦ො + 𝑑𝑧 𝑧Ƹ
𝒅𝑾 = 𝑭 cos 𝜽 𝒅𝒓
𝒅𝑾 = 𝑭 ∙ 𝒅𝒓 = 𝑭𝒙 𝒅𝒙 + 𝑭𝒚 𝒅𝒚 + 𝑭𝒛 𝒅𝒛
Again, −𝒅𝑾 = 𝒅𝑼
Thus, 𝑭𝒙 𝒅𝒙 + 𝑭𝒚 𝒅𝒚 + 𝑭𝒛 𝒅𝒛 = −𝒅𝑼
𝒅𝑼 = −𝑭 ∙ 𝒅𝒓 = −(𝑭𝒙 𝒅𝒙 + 𝑭𝒚 𝒅𝒚 + 𝑭𝒛 𝒅𝒛)
𝑭 =?
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [10]

dU 𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝑫 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑𝑫?
Y

(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝒅𝒓
(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦)
𝒓
𝒓 + 𝒅𝒓
X
Rate of change of potential energy is different in different directions
Total change in potential energy due to change of 𝑥 by 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑦 by 𝑑𝑦
𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝒅𝑼 = 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

3D: Since, 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝒅𝑼 = 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [11]

Potential energy in 3D
We can write;
𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝒅𝑼 = 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝒅𝑼 = ෝ+
𝒙 ෝ+
𝒚 ෝ + 𝒅yෝ
𝒛ො ∙ (𝒅𝒙 𝒙 𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛ො𝒛)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝒅𝑼 = ෝ+
𝒙 ෝ+
𝒚 ෝ + 𝒅yෝ
𝒛ො 𝑼 ∙ (𝒅𝒙 𝒙 𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛ො𝒛)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

𝒅𝑼 = 𝜵𝑼 ∙ 𝒅𝒓
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝜵 symbols stands for an operator 𝜵 = ෝ
𝒙 + ෝ
𝒚 + 𝒛ො
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝜵𝑼 ➔ This operation is known as gradient of 𝑼.

𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
Since, 𝑑𝑈 = −𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ ➔ 𝑭 = −𝜵𝑼 = − ෝ
𝒙 + ෝ
𝒚 + 𝒛ො
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝑭𝐱 = − & 𝑭𝐲 = − & 𝑭𝐳 = −
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [12]

Gradient in Plane Polar Coordinates!

Let us consider, 𝑈(𝑟, 𝜃). By rule of partial differentiation!
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕𝑈
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑟Ƹ + 𝜃መ . 𝑑𝑟𝑟Ƹ + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝜃መ = 𝛻𝑈 ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕𝑈
𝛻𝑈 = 𝑟Ƹ + 𝜃෠ (In-plane polar coordinate)
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

Now, 𝑑𝑈 = −𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = − 𝐹𝑟 𝑟Ƹ + 𝐹𝜃 𝜃෠ ∙ (𝑑𝑟ෝ𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝜃)

෠

= − 𝐹𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + 𝐹𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝜃

𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕𝑈
𝐹𝑟 = − ; 𝐹𝜃 = −
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [13]

Gradient in Cylindrical Coordinates!

In Cylindrical, 𝑼 𝒓, 𝜽, 𝒛 . By rule of partial differentiation!

𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝒅𝑼 = 𝒅𝒓 + 𝒅𝜽+ 𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒛

𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝒅𝑼 = ෝ𝒓 + ෡+
𝜽 ෡ + 𝒅𝒛ො𝒛 = 𝜵𝑼 ∙ 𝒅𝒓
𝒛ො . 𝒅𝒓ෝ𝒓 + 𝒓𝒅𝜽𝜽
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒛

𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝜵𝑼 = ෝ𝒓 + ෡
𝜽+ 𝒛ො
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒛

Now, 𝑑𝑈 = −𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = − 𝐹𝑟 𝑟Ƹ + 𝐹𝜃 𝜃መ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑧Ƹ ∙ (𝑑𝑟ෝ𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝜃መ + 𝑑𝑧𝑧)Ƹ

= − 𝐹𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + 𝐹𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝜃 + 𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝑭𝒓 = − ,𝑭 = − ,𝑭 = −
𝝏𝒓 𝜽 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝒛 𝝏𝒛
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [14]

Gradient in Spherical Polar Coordinates!

In Spherical Polar Coordinates, 𝑼 𝒓, 𝜽, 𝝋 . By rule of partial differentiation!

𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝒅𝑼 = 𝒅𝒓 + 𝒅𝜽+ 𝒅𝝋
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝝋

𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼
𝒅𝑼 = 𝒓ො + ෡
𝜽+ 𝝋 ෡ + 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝝋ෝ
ෝ . 𝒅𝒓ො𝒓 + 𝒓𝒅𝜽𝜽 𝝋 = 𝜵𝑼 ∙ 𝒅𝒓
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏𝝋

𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼
𝜵𝑼 = 𝒓ො + ෡+
𝜽 ෝ
𝝋
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏𝝋

Now, 𝑑𝑈 = −𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = − 𝐹𝑟 𝑟Ƹ + 𝐹𝜃 𝜃መ + 𝐹𝜑 𝜑ො ∙ 𝒅𝒓ො𝒓 + 𝒓𝒅𝜽𝜽

෡ + 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝝋ෝ
𝝋

= − 𝐹𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + 𝐹𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝜃 + 𝐹𝜑 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜑

𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼
𝑭𝒓 = − , 𝑭𝜽 = − , 𝑭𝝋 = −
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏𝝋
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [15]

Note: Conservative Vs Non-conservative forces

𝑭 = −𝛁𝑼 (true only for conservative forces?)

Let’s review how we have arrived to this relation:

We have assumed that Work done by the force is entirely stored in the system as
potential energy, −𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑈

Work done by all type of forces do not converted to potential energy stored in the
system, it may lost by dissipation in the form of heat, sound etc. Those forces are
dissipative force/non-conservative force, Example: Friction

Work done by dissipative force 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑓Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ ≠ 𝑑𝑈; Energy is not stored as potential

energy.
Hence, 𝑓Ԧ ≠ −𝛻𝑈 & 𝑇 + 𝑉 ≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
when a particle is under dissipative forces.

Thus, they are called as non-conservative forces.

PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [16]

Note: Conservative forces

Is the force always derivable from scalar potential 𝑭 = −𝛁𝑼?
Answer is NO. All forces are not derivable from scalar potential.
B
Those forces, which are derivable from scalar potential (𝑭 = −𝛁𝑼), are
known as conservative forces.
Work done due to motion from A to B 𝐵
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = −𝛻𝑈 ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = −𝑑𝑈; 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑊 = − න 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑈 − 𝑈
𝐴 𝐵
𝐴
A
𝑑 𝑣Ԧ 𝑑 𝑣Ԧ 1 1
Again, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑚. 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑣𝑑𝑡
Ԧ = 𝑚𝑑 𝑣
Ԧ ∙ 𝑣
Ԧ = 𝑚 𝑑 𝑣 2
𝑩
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑾 = න 𝒎 𝒅 𝒗 = 𝒎𝒗𝑩 − 𝒎𝒗𝑨 𝟐 (= 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑲. 𝑬. )
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑨
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Thus, 𝑈𝐴 − 𝑈𝐵 = 𝒎𝒗𝑩 𝟐 − 𝒎𝒗𝑨 𝟐  𝑈𝐴 + 𝒎𝒗𝑨 𝟐 = 𝑈𝐵 + 𝒎𝒗𝑩 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 (𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 )

PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [17]

Conservative force: Work done is independent of path

D
Total work done when a particle moves from A to
B along ADB B

𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝑭 C
𝒅𝒓
𝑊𝐴𝐷𝐵 = න 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න −𝛻𝑈 ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න −𝑑𝑈
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
A
= 𝑈𝐴 − 𝑈𝐵 E

Important: Work done only depends on potential at the end points

A and B if the force is conservative

𝑾𝑨𝑫𝑩 = 𝑾𝑨𝑪𝑩 = 𝑾𝑨𝑬𝑩

PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Lecture 05 [18]

Conservative force: Work done in closed path is zero

Work done along ACBDA D

𝑩 𝑨 B
𝑾𝑨𝑪𝑩𝑫𝑨 = ර 𝑭 ∙ 𝒅𝒓 = න 𝑭 ∙ 𝒅𝒓 + න 𝑭 ∙ 𝒅𝒓
𝑨 𝑩 A
C
Via C Via D

𝑾𝑨𝑪𝑩𝑫𝑨 = 𝑼𝑨 − 𝑼𝑩 + 𝑼𝑩 − 𝑼𝑨 = 𝟎

Total work done by a conservation force along a closed path is always zero

Alternative definition of conservative force:

• Conservative force is a force for which work done along a closed path is
zero.
Or
• Work done by the conservative force does not depend on the path but only
depend on end points.